Evaluation of law enforcement 733


enforcement strategies to achieve conservation objectives (Jachmann, 2008a,b). This system was evaluated by several studies that identified internal (e.g. budget) and external (e.g. local population density, level of tourism) factors as key elements that may support or decrease the performance of protected areas (Jachmann, 2008a,b; Jachmann et al., 2011; Wiafe & Amoah, 2012; Wiafe, 2016). These studies focused on short-term data (2–4 years) collected shortly after the implementation of the system. The long-term dynamics of the system have not previously been examined. The aim of our investigation was therefore to examine


the long-term dynamics of the conventional ranger-based monitoring system in the Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve in Ghana and to provide an assessment of the incidences of poaching activities. Using data for January 2006–August 2017 on monthly patrol performance and poaching-related encounters, our objectives were to evaluate the temporal pattern of patrol staff performance and to examine what factors or events could have affected it. In addition, we investigated the temporal patterns of illegal activities in the Reserve and aimed to identify whether the increasing human population around the Reserve affects the encounter rate of illegal activities.


Study area


The 386 km2 Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve (Fig. 1) lies in the Afram Plains region of Ghana. It is a flat area with a mean altitude of 120 m, with some areas reaching 230 m. The high- er areas are the watershed for a network of streams domi- nated by tributaries of the Afram and Sene rivers, most of which dry up in the dry season (Hagan, 1998). The climate has dry (November–March) and wet (April–October) seasons, with a total annual rainfall of 1,200–1,300 mm. Kogyae lies between transitional woodland (semi-deciduous forest) and Guinea savannah woodland and open grasslands (Wildlife Department, 1994).Alarge ungulatecommunityof conservation importance includes the buffalo Syncerus caf- fer, hartebeest Alcelaphus buselaphus,waterbuck Kobus ellip- siprymnus, Buffon’skob Kobus kob, bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus, oribi Ourebia ourebi, red-flanked Cephalophus rufi- latus, black Cephalophus niger,Maxwell’s Cephalophus max- welli and bay Cephalophus dorsalis duikers, red river hog Potamochoerus porcus andwarthog Phacochoerus africanus. The Reserve also supports the baboon Papio anubis, patas Erythrocebus patas,green Chlorocebus sabaeus, mona Cer- copithecus mona and spot-nosed Cercopithecus petaurista monkeys, and white-thighed colobus Colobus vellerosus (Wildlife Department, 1994). The Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve is the extended former


Kujani Forest Reserve, formerly managed by the Forestry Department. In 1971, the administration of the Reserve was handed to the Wildlife Division for strict protection


FIG. 1 Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve in Ghana, indicating the location of villages and rangers’ camps (adapted from Ayivor & Ntiamoa-Baidu, 2015).


under the Wildlife Reserve Regulations, LI 710. The Kujani Forest Reserve boundary extension was to obtain a viable ecological unit for the Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve (Oduro-Ofori et al., 2015). This became necessary because studies by the Wildlife Division indicated that, in the dry season, the animals in the Reserve depend on the rivers in unprotected areas for survival (Ayivor & Ntiamoa-Baidu, 2015). The extension also includes the communities of Asasebonso, Atakpame, Nyamekyere Dagomba, Birem, Yahayakura, Aberewanko and Konkomba. Additionally, Aframso, Birem, Chichibon and Kyeiase lie along the border of the Reserve (Ayivor & Ntiamoa-Baidu, 2015). Local com- munities comprise predominantly farmers, with up to 75% of the people in the area working in the agriculture sector (Ministry of Finance, 2015). Farming practices involve a slash and burn method of land clearing and cultivation of a variety of crops (yam,maize, paddy rice, groundnuts, cas- sava, cowpeas and vegetables). Fifteen and 10%of the popu- lation work in the industry and service sectors, respectively. The population in the district is increasing at a rate of 1.4% per year (Ministry of Finance, 2015). The Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve is managed by a man-


ager, who is assisted by a law enforcement officer in charge of field operations. The patrol staff are employees of the Wildlife Division and are based only in Kogyae. The number of patrol staff varied from31 to 44 during 2006–2017.The an- nual budget during 2006–2015 wasGHC6,000 (c. 1,130USD); this was increased to GHC 40,000 (c. 7,460 USD) in 2016. Kogyae has four management zones: the Protected,


Special-use, Restoration and Development Zones. The Protected Zone is the largest, comprising 220 km2 (57%). This is the most important and least disturbed Zone, fully


Oryx, 2021, 55(5), 732–738 © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605320000228


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