776 Y. Yom‐Tov et al. Poaching


Despite laws prohibiting gazelle hunting in Israel, they are still hunted illegally. Using data on, and provided by, ar- rested poachers (R. Malka, pers. comm., 2019), we estimate that 300–1,300 gazelles are poached annually. Gazelles are shot with firearms, chased by off-road vehicles or trained dogs, and are spotted by poachers using night-vision gog- gles, and are also poached using iron foot-traps. Most poachers make private use of their bounty, but some do so for commercial purposes. In the northern Negev, an area characterized by plains and low hills, poachers may chase gazelles with off-road vehicles or Saluki dogs, until they are exhausted and thus easily caught (Israel Nature and Parks Authority rangers, pers. comms, 2019). Poaching is also carried out by migrant agricultural workers, mostly from Thailand, who hunt animals mainly using noose traps (Yom-Tov, 2003), with .100 gazelles caught annually in this way (Leader & Boldo, 2008). Poachers are seldom caught and convicted, and those that are receive low fines and are seldom jailed, despite harsh laws that allow this punishment (Israel Nature and Parks Authority rangers, pers. comms, 2019).


Invasive plants


Invasive plant species pose another threat to gazelle habitats and food resources. In Emek Ha’Arazim west of Jerusalem, dense stands of the Chinese tree Ailanthus altissima have re- placed much of the natural batha vegetation (authors, pers. obs.). Along the coastal dunes next to the Mediterranean Sea, extensive stands of the Australian shrub Acacia saligna and the North American composite Hetherotheca subaxil- laris cover increasingly large areas and prevent the ger- mination and/or spread of the annuals favoured as food by gazelles (Dufor-Dror, 2010). Although the effects of invasive plants are currently less significant than those of other threats, they could become more important as such plants spread.


Recommended conservation actions


Although Israel is the last stronghold of the Endangered mountain gazelle, some populations are in decline and others are unable to reach their carrying capacity despite the species’ considerable reproductive potential. In addition to the systematic surveys of gazelles carried out by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority since the 1980s there is a need for more information on life history parameters, predation and poaching rates, to enable informed, science-based, pol- icy and management of the species. Such research could be aided by geo-tagging of individuals and genetic analysis of isolated populations.


Wemake four recommendations to improve gazelle con-


servation (some are currently being explored or implement- ed by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority):


(1) To halt habitat destruction we advocate a ban on the establishment of new human settlements and greater restrictions on urban sprawl. Intensive agriculture should be promoted, and further conversion of natural habitats to agricultural fields or built areas should be prohibited. Subsidies that promote a high human birth rate need to be reconsidered.


(2) Effects of fragmentation and isolation should be mini- mized by constructing more efficient wildlife crossings in key areas. In some cases individuals should be trans- located between populations to alleviate genetic bottle- necks. Ultimately, greater habitat connectivity at the regional and national planning levels needs to be pro- moted.


(3) To reduce the effects of predation, anthropogenic food sources for gazelle predators should be reduced, col- lected or removed (a method that has proved success- ful in initial trials; Dolev et al., 2018), and the control of feral dogs reinstated.


(4) To reduce poaching, dedicated Israel Nature and Parks Authority personnel with specialized equipment should be trained and tasked with locating and stopping poachers. Current laws should be changed to include obligatory minimum prison sentences for poaching, and educational programmes to promote conservation should be established in those regions with greater prevalence of poaching.


Outlook


Mountain gazelle populations in the southern Levant have undergone substantial, human-induced declines. This story offers several key lessons for other species and regions. The habitat of the mountain gazelle has been occupied by people for millennia. Although the species has survived per- sistent hunting and land-use changes its habitat is now being converted at an unprecedented scale. As the global human population increases and more natural areas are converted to human-dominated landscapes, the availability of natural habitats will become a greater limiting factor for the existence of this gazelle and for many other species (WWF, 2018). The mountain gazelle faces several threats that can act in


synergy when populations are fragmented, and knowledge of the biology and behaviour of the species is required to facilitate effective conservation action (Berger-Tal & Saltz, 2016). The story of the mountain gazelle highlights the im- portance of understanding the intricacies of conservation at different spatial scales, and the effects of fragmentation and associated factors in a conflict region with a complex socio- political situation.


Oryx, 2021, 55(5), 771–778 © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531900108X


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