The Indian pangolin in the Eastern Ghats 681
knowledge about pangolin ecology that could be incorpo- rated into conservation planning of the species. Hunting is a significant threat to wildlife globally
(Harrison et al., 2016). It negatively affects mammal popu- lations even in protected landscapes such as the Western Ghats and the Indian Himalayas (Kumara & Singh, 2004; Velho et al., 2012; Benítez-López et al., 2017). One intervie- wee noted:
‘Theywere never in abundance;we look for their burrows and dig them out. I have made several attempts to find it so that I can earn some money. The last one we hunted was about a decade ago since then we have not seen one.’
Hunting has significantly reduced the populations of
mammals, birds and reptiles in the northern Eastern Ghats (Ganesh et al., 2015). During the interviews, people reported hunting using a variety of strategies, including setting fires in the dry season to clear the undergrowth to ensure better visibility for hunting. Interviewees suggested that the pangolin population has
decreased and cited hunting as the prime reason. Our find- ings suggest that pangolin hunting was mostly opportunis- tic, occurring when an active burrow is encountered, as in Assam (D’Cruze et al., 2018). Hunting techniques, such as digging out burrows and tracking with dogs, as described by respondents, are similar to those described in other stud- ies (Newton et al., 2008). Our findings with respect to the use of rings carved from pangolin scales, which is rooted in superstitious beliefs and perceived medicinal properties, are consistent with the findings of Mohapatra et al. (2015). The selling price of pangolin scales that we recorded
(INR 10,000–20,000; USD 138–277 per kg), was markedly lower than prices reported in neighbouring Nepal (USD 500–625 per kg) and Bangladesh (USD 500 per kg) (Katuwal et al., 2015; Trageser et al., 2017). This is consistent with observations from other studies (Nooren & Claridge, 2001; Newton et al., 2008). Prices for pangolin scales in India have nevertheless risen. For instance, in the state of Mizoram, 1 kg of scales fetched INR 1,000 in 1996, INR 13,000 in 2013 and INR 17,000 in 2017, in line with inflation in India over this period (D’Cruze et al., 2018). Werecommend that, to ensure the long-term persistence
of the Indian pangolin in the northern Eastern Ghats, fur- ther research is carried out to identify both the proximate and ultimate drivers of pangolin hunting. We recommend that local authorities shift from a reactive (e.g. seizures of scales) to a proactive enforcement strategy (prevention of pangolin hunting) by engaging with local communities to understand their socio-economic needs and socio-cultural practices, and to understand market conditions that result in the hunting of pangolins (Dixit et al., 2010; Mohapatra et al., 2015). Targeted awareness programmes in the local languages could be initiated to communicate the urgency of the situation, and the dangers of consumption of wild meat, in the form of emerging zoonotic infections, could
be specifically emphasized. The chain of pangolin trade needs to be halted by taking steps to prevent hunting and supply to local middlemen. Setting up rescue, rehabilitation and breeding centres for pangolins rescued from illegal trade (Hua et al., 2015) could contribute to the future recov- ery of the population in the Eastern Ghats.
Acknowledgements We thank the Wildlife Conservation Trust, India, for financial and equipment support for this project, and the Conservation Leadership Programme, The Rufford Foundation, Idea Wild and ReAP for the continuing support, particularly for equipment. We thank the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department for granting us the necessary permits and for field assistance, Arvind Thurram for field assistance, Ovee Thorat for her input, and the Editor and two reviewers for their helpful comments.
Author contributions Study design: all authors; field work: VA, KP, RS; data analysis, writing: all authors.
Conflicts of interest None.
Ethical standards This study was conducted with permission from the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department. Respondents’ names were re- corded only if they wished us to do so (to recontact them if necessary), and names and locations were held confidentially. The research abided by the Oryx guidelines on ethical standards.
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