Carbon Capture & Storage
Figure 2: Figure 1: World Electricity Generation by Fuel
Some are futuristic but others may become
second-generation technologies. The basic
principles of these processes are well understood
but a considerable development effort would be
needed for their scale up and commercialisation.
Examples include Chemical Looping Combustion
(solid oxidant), some membrane technologies
and, possibly, the AZEP process.
Once captured and compressed, CO
2
can be
transported by truck, ship, rail or pipeline.
PipelinetransportofCO
2
isfairlywellestablished.
IntheUnitedStatesforexample,over2,500kmof
Source: World Energy Council
pipelines carry more than 40Mt CO
2
per year.
As far as long-term storage is concerned, deep
These concepts are based mainly on existing technologies geological formations are generally considered to be the only
andwouldnotrequireamajordevelopmenteffortbeforewider feasible option in the foreseeable future. There are three basic
commercial deployment. The main technological challenge is types of geological formations suitable for this purpose:
the high energy demand of the capture process which can
•
Deep saline aquifers.
reducetheoverallefficiencyofapowerplantbywellover10%.
•
Oil and gas reservoirs.
A power plant equipped with CCS needs roughly 10% – 40%
•
Deep coal seams.
more energy than a plant of equivalent capacity without CCS.
Another challenge is the cost of additional equipment for the Aquifers are estimated to have the largest storage potential
capture process. worldwide. The injection of CO
2
into partially depleted oil
Capture removes the gaseous CO
2
from the combustion fieldsforEnhancedOilRecovery(EOR)offersaneconomically
process and produces a reasonably clean CO
2
stream. In post- attractive solution, since additional oil can be extracted and
combustioncapturetheCO
2
isremovedfromthefluegas.The the economic life of the field extended. Among the
main technology commercially available today is based on outstanding issues related to CO
2
storage to be addressed is a
CO
2
capture using an amine solution. Once captured, CO
2
is more accurate assessment of the available storage capacity
stripped from the amine solution, dried, compressed and and retention time. Potentially damaging effects on human
transported to the storage site. In pre-combustion capture, the healthortheenvironmentinthevicinityofastoragesitealso
CO
2
is removed prior to combustion. require further examination. In
In the O
2
/CO
2
recycle (oxyfuel)
... legislation regulating the
addition, legislation regulating the
combustion, the fuel is burned in
oxygenandrecycledCO
permanent & safe
permanent and safe underground
2
,insteadofair. storage of CO
2
needs to be established.
This results in a flue gas consisting
underground storage of CO
2
Today, CCS technologies are used in
mainly of CO
2
and water vapour.
needs to be established
very few places. Smaller pilot plants
Cleaning of the flue gas – removing the (30MW) are being tested and large
conventional pollutants and condensing the water vapour – demonstration plants (500MW and above) are being planned.
produces an almost pure CO
2
stream. Combustion in oxygen Three industrial storage sites are currently in operation: The
is a widespread technology in the steel and glass SleipnerProjectinanoffshoresalineformationinNorway,the
manufacturing industries. Cryogenic air separation for Weyburn EOR Project in Canada and the In Salah Project in a
production of oxygen is also commercially well-established in gas field in Algeria. These storage projects operate on a
numerousapplications,althoughatasomewhatsmallerscale commercial level (1Mt CO
2
/year and above) and have
than required for large power plants. While steam boilers currently reached around 0.5% of their estimated capacity.
would require slight modification, natural gas-fired gas It would be possible to apply CCS technologies on a wider
turbines and their heat recovery systems would need to be scale now using commercially available equipment with some
redesigned for combustion with oxygen and recycled CO
2
. modifications. However, a significant equipment scale-up
Inaddition,thereareanumberofotheremergingprocesses. wouldberequiredinmostcases.Thenear-termsolutionsbased
136 worldPower2009
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