ELITE PERFORMANCE

load during each micro-cycle to allow for supercompensation and optimal adaptation. Establishing training load is beyond the scope of the article and for further information refer to an article by Taha and Thomas (3).

Training stimuli

Performance improvement

Figure 2. Progression of adaptive response

TRAINING FATIGUE AND OVER-REACHING Fatigue as a result of training lasting 1-2 days and characterised by muscle soreness, insomnia and increased allergic response is termed ‘training fatigue’. A reduction in training volume, which allows recovery, will reverse training fatigue within 24 hours. When intense training sessions are undertaken during the period of training fatigue, without an appropriate recovery, a state of ‘overreaching’ ensues. Over-reaching is a temporary state lasting from a few days to two weeks. Coaches will often deliberately induce a state of ‘over-reaching’ to enhance the training effect. Caution is warranted, however, when adopting these techniques if ‘unexplained underperformance syndrome’ is to be avoided (4).

UNEXPLAINED UNDERPERFORMANCE SYNDROME (UPS) The term unexplained underperformance syndrome (UPS) is used to describe a reduction in physical performance coupled with chronic and unexplained fatigue for a period of greater than 2 weeks despite rest and in the absence of any medical condition. UPS has been termed ‘overtraining’, ‘overtraining syndrome’, ‘burnout’, ‘staleness’, ‘chronic fatigue’ and ‘post-viral fatigue’. UPS is a clinically complex condition of indeterminate cause with a range of individually varying symptoms and signs (see boxes 1 and 2). UPS is more common in endurance-trained individuals with a prevalence of around 10%, however it does occur in sprint/power trained athletes. While the cause of UPS is associated with an imbalance of training and recovery it is not solely associated with over-training. Other factors include various stressors outside of

BOX 2. SIGNS OF UPS

■ Increased normal resting heart rates by 5-10 beats per minute

■ Increased resting blood pressure ■ Raised resting lactic acid concentrations ■ Decreased maximal lactic acid levels following intensive physical exercise

■ Following specific exercise/training routines, the heart may take 2-3 times longer than normal to return to resting levels

■ Decreased ability by the body to utilise oxygen during maximal exercise

■ Muscle damage ■ Menstrual irregularities, even cessation of menstruation ■ Susceptibility to infections, especially of the skin and upper respiratory tract

■ Increased rates of allergies & minor scratches may heal more slowly.

22 BOX 1. SYMPTOMS OF UPS

■ Constant fatigue ■ Poor performance ■ Excessive sweating ■ Inability to recover optimally following intensive exercise ■ Loss of desire and enthusiasm for exercise training (feel- ings of helplessness)

■ Breakdown of technique ■ Poor concentration ■ Loss of appetite and loss of body weight ■ Disturbed sleep often with nightmares or vivid dreams ■ Increased susceptibility to injuries ■ Increased anxiety and irritability.

training. The treatment for UPS is complex and multi-factorial and focuses on the removal or modulation of underpinning stressors and a restructuring of training to allow a slow progression in training volume often lasting 2-6 months (5).

SUMMARY Optimising performance at a single time point is an exceptionally difficult task. Periodisation is a complex manipulation of an ath- lete’s training programme into preparation, competition and tran- sition phases employing macro- meso- and micro-cycles to assist in the process of performance enhancement. The success of peri- odisation is a delicate balance between training load and recov- ery. Excessive load and insufficient recovery can lead to injury and illness that, in the case of UPS, can be career ending. An inter- disciplinary model with close collaboration between athlete, coach and support staff offers the best possible to chance to avoid injury and illness and optimise performance.

THE AUTHOR ■ Dr Greg Whyte is the national director of science and innovation for the English Institute of Sport. Greg completed an MSc in human performance in the US before returning to the UK to complete a PhD. He was appointed research manager at the British Olympic Medical Committee and has worked as consultant physiologist to many Olympic and professional sports. He has published extensively in the field of sport science and medicine.

References 1. Houmard JA, Jones RA. Effects of taper on swim performance. Practical implications. Sports Medicine 1994;17:224-232 2. Bouchard C, Dionne FT, Simoneau JA, Boulay MR. Genetics of aerobic and anaerobic performances. Exercise and Sport Science Review 1992;20:27-58 3. Taha T and Thomas S. Systems modelling of the relationship between training and performance. Sports Medicine 2003;33(14):1061-1073 4. Budgett R, Newsholme E, Lehmann M, et al. Redefining the overtrain- ing syndrome as the unexplained underperformance syndrome. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2000;34:67-68 5. Koutedakis Y, Budgett R, Faulmann L. Rest in underperforming elite competitors. British Journal of Sports Medicine 1990;24:248-52

FURTHER READING ■ McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL. (2001). Exercise physiolo- gy. Energy, nutrition and human performance. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Baltimore, BA.

■ Noakes T. Lore of Running. Oxford University Press 2001. ■ Fleck SJ. Periodized strength training: A critical review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 1999;13 p82

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