CONDITIONING

but care must be taken not to progress the athlete too fast, and emphasis still needs to be on technique rather than on the total load lifted. The effective use of programmes at this stage is dependent upon the base laid in the previous stages.

PROGRAMME DESIGN Given the vital importance of quality, it is essential that the resis- tance programme is effectively planned. In terms of setting up the programme the following guidelines can be applied to assist in the development of a high quality youth resistance programme.

Choosing exercises When working with young athletes the primary focus should be on developing the core sections of the body, especially the abdomi- nal area, together with the hips and lower back, with a secondary focus on the shoulders, arms and legs. Exercises should be includ- ed in the programme that develop balanced strength across joints and on both sides of the body. Multi-joint exercises are preferred to isolation exercises, in that they both require the use of a greater muscle mass, and also develop a greater degree of muscle co-ordination.

Exercise performance Exercises should be performed through the full range of motion to ensure that flexibility is maintained and/or enhanced. Technique must always be the main focus of training and should never be compromised in an attempt to lift a greater amount of weight. Exercise performance should generally be slow and controlled at most stages of development - exceptions will occur in the later stages where high velocities need to be used such as during Olympic lifts.

Choosing loads, sets and reps Exercise prescription for young athletes needs to emphasise gen- erally high repetitions using low to moderate load, especially in the initial stages (15). These can be carried out for one to three sets but with the total number of sets per session relatively low. Rather than use a percentage of 1RM as an indicator of loads, a repetition range is more suitable, eg. athletes should be encour- aged to select a weight that allows for 12-15 repetitions on a

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given exercise. Loads should be chosen that allow for the com- pletion of, at least, the lower end of the repetition range. The notion of building big muscles should be discouraged and other benefits highlighted. Similarly, the temptation to lift as much weight as possible should also be discouraged. When starting the programmes it is best to underestimate physical abilities and then increase the difficulty rather than vice-versa. Emphasis should be on the perfection of technique and a gradual progression of loads. Adult programmes and philosophies are not suitable and volume and intensity should be well below that of adult programmes. At all times the quality of instruction and rate of progression are paramount. Training logs can be used as a useful teaching and motivational tool.

Modality of training In the initial phases of training, body weight, elastic resistance and medicine balls provide an ideal way of introducing resistance training. Free weights such as barbells and dumbbells can then be introduced onto this sound base of general strength and tech- nique. Free weights are generally preferred over machines for a number of reasons. Firstly, free weight exercises better stimulate the synergistic and stabilising muscle involved in movement and also transfer more effectively to sports performance (16). Secondly, they generally allow for a greater variety of exercises in different positions and planes (1) and thirdly, the vast majority of machines are configured for adults, and so are unsuitable for use by young athletes.

Equipment considerations Whatever mode of training is utilised, all equipment used should be safe, undamaged and must also be suitable for use by young athletes. The equipment must allow for the effective administra- tion of the programme and therefore must allow for appropriate loads to be selected, and for small progressions to be made. So appropriately weighted bars, discs, medicine balls and dumbbells must be available. Broom handles for example, can be an effective tool in teaching the technical aspects of lifts such as the squat, deadlift, and the Olympic lifts. Training plates (light plates, but with the diameter of a full Olympic plate) that allow for a bar to be an appropriate distance above the ground are also an impor-

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