Trans RINA, Vol 155, Part C1, Intl J Marine Design, Jan - Jun 2013
Navigator Coxswain
Navigator Coxswain
One way in which distributed cognition and appropriate levels of crew SA are achieved is by instigating formal processes to promote effective teamwork. BRM (Bridge Resource Management) or when applied more widely to the rest of the ship MRM (Maritime Resource Management) is
Shared Situation Awareness
Overlapping Situation Awareness
Figure 2. Example of overlapping and shared SA in a High Speed Craft (from Dobbins, Harris, Smoker, Hill, Forsman, Brand, Dahlman and Stark, 2010).
Each crew member requires SA for those factors relevant to undertake their duties for a specific task in a particular mission phase. These SA components are role specific but are inter-dependent. The major challenge to achieve wider crew SA is in the co-ordination of these crew resources. To this end Endsley and Jones (2001) developed a model comprised of four components:
Requirements – What information and goals need to be shared between crew members?
Devices – What devices are available for sharing this
devices; visual and/or auditory displays, etc.). Mechanisms – What mechanisms
information (communication do
crew
members possess which support their ability to interpret information in the same way (such as shared mental models to facilitate communication and coordination) that developing team SA?
Processes – What formal processes are used for sharing information;
aid in verifying understanding;
prioritising tasks and establishing contingencies, etc? Endsley and Jones (2001) also suggest that this aspect includes developing group norms associated with the non-judgmental questioning of other’s actions.
The ‘requirements’ aspect in the above list is often a product of formal
instantiated via formal procedures.
job/task analyses which become ‘Devices’ refer to the
design of the physical equipment to support shared SA (and hence distributed cognition).
often a product of training, which ensures a degree of common understanding.
great deal of effort in a number of industries, component. sub-section.
has been directed at the ‘processes’
This is the main emphasis in the current Even with just this short description it
becomes evident that modern Human Factors is concerned with interactions between the person; their training; the processes involved; the environment in which they work and equipment design. It is also about team organisation and team work.
‘Mechanisms’ are
However, in recent years a safety critical
available to
the process by which ship-wide
command and control is exercised. MRM is concerned with the effective use and co-ordination of all the skills, knowledge, experience and resources
achieve the established mission goals of a voyage safely and efficiently. Revisions to the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers adopted at a Conference in Manila in 2010 require the senior members of a ship’s crew in
positions of responsibility to undertake
mandatory MRM training (with full compliance by 1 January 2017).
BRM/MRM concepts build upon the Crew Resource Management (CRM) ideas initially developed by the commercial aviation industry. Good CRM (CAA, 2006) requires knowledge of:
Human error and reliability, error chain, error prevention and detection.
Company safety culture, Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), organisational factors. Stress, stress vigilance.
management, fatigue and
Information acquisition and processing, Situation Awareness and workload management.
Decision making.
Communication and co-ordination onboard and outside the cockpit.
Leadership and team behaviour.
Automation and the philosophy of the use of automation.
The ‘processes’ (q.v. Endsley and Jones, underpinning
CRM/MRM
Avermaete, 1998):
includes (from others; supporting others
2001) van
Co-operation – Team building and maintaining; considering
and conflict solving.
Leadership and managerial skills – Use of authority/assertiveness; providing and maintaining standards;
coordination, and workload management.
Development of Situation Awareness – System awareness; environmental awareness anticipation.
and
Decision making skills definition/diagnosis;
option generation;
– Problem risk
assessment/option choice and outcome review.
Kanki and Palmer (1993) described five ways in which communication facilitates CRM performance. could equally have described its function as five means
They ©2013: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects C-3 planning and
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