Trans RINA, Vol 155, Part C1, Intl J Marine Design, Jan -Jun 2013
by which it promotes crew SA and distributed cognition in teams. They asserted that effective communication:
Provides information. Establishes relationships.
Establishes predictable behaviour patterns. Maintains attention to task and monitoring. Is a management tool.
However, team working is only one aspect of the manner in which the
information processing 2.2 COGNITIVE OFF-LOADING
Cognitive off-loading is principally concerned with the ‘devices’ component in Endsley and Jones’s
(2001)
model of team SA. It is about the non-human (technological) artefacts used by people that make them ‘smarter’ (Norman, 1993). At the simplest level possible, a pencil and paper improves human memory, either in the long-term (e.g. as in a diary) or in the short term (when noting down intermediate steps when doing long division). However, in the latter case, by doing long division with the aid of a pencil and paper, the main information processing limitation is now not the limiting storage characteristics of human Working Memory but the accuracy of recalling and executing the procedures for
doing such a calculation, and the symbolic
representation of the digits. The long-division process is now distributed between a human and a non-human component. To a certain degree the artefact being used serves as a ‘cognitive amplifier’ (Pea, 1985). It enhances the user’s abilities by distributing a task (or tasks) between the artefact and the user. In a similar way radar can be considered as enhancing a user’s vision allowing them to see further; image intensifiers enhance a person’s night vision. However, many cognitive amplifiers simultaneously change the nature of cognition.
To
exploit the calculating power of a computer the user needs to know how to program it; to access information on remote servers the individual needs to know how to search the internet and access this information. A different cognitive skill set is now needed, one which requires the
skills and knowledge to exploit the
properties of the artefact enhancing the user’s cognitive system.
Hutchins (1995) illustrated this in a different way. He considered the problem of estimating the speed of a ship using a (low level) technological artefact: the three-scale nomogram. A nomogram has three logarithmic scales for distance, time and speed. Knowledge of two of these parameters allows the third to be calculated. This is accomplished by laying a straightedge on the nomogram in such a way that it intercepts the two known values. The straightedge will then cross the remaining scale at the correct value of the third parameter. The cognitive task being performed (scale reading and interpolation
C-4
distributed across a ship. The second aspect is much more closely related to equipment design.
functions are
combined with the psychomotor manipulation of the straightedge on the nomogram) is now quite different to that required to perform the same calculation using mental arithmetic. The job is now also distributed between a person and a rudimentary machine. Electronic computers are merely far more sophisticated versions of this simple hand-held computing device.
Combining sensors and technologies can further improve other aspects of the human perceptual and information processing system. For example, a radar allows a user to ‘see’ further but overlaying the radar display with other details (e.g. an integrated/overlaid chart plotter) may allow a Navigator to effectively ‘see’ underwater or assume God’s eye view of their current position with respect to any coastal formations. A radio or intercom effectively allows the user to shout further!
Everyone, either knowingly or unknowingly uses
artefacts around them to enhance their cognitive abilities. Furthermore, modern technology is consistently used to both mediate and moderate communication in teams comprised of both human and non-human agents. While part of the ship’s crew will be on the bridge and able to communicate in a variety of methods (voice; gestures; interpreting body language; sharing common displays) those remote from the bridge will require communication to be undertaken using more structured, formal channels (e.g. radios or intercoms) usually using technological devices.
Ideally, these should be designed to promote
team SA and distributed cognition. The appropriate functionality for such devices to these ends can only be derived from careful consideration of the first aspect Endsley and Jones’s (2001) model: ‘requirements’. this way the technology
In requirements to promote
distributed cognition meet the team requirements for promoting it.
2.3 INTEGRATION OF TEAMS AND MACHINES
Up until this point the two major aspects of distributed cognition in a JCS such as a ship have been considered separately. However, it was stated right from the start that a large vessel is a socio-technical system consisting of complex interactions between people, equipment and organisational structures.
As will be considered anon,
where the bounds are drawn around a JCS is also a moot point. However, it first needs to be demonstrated how teams of people and technological artefacts combine to undertake a collaborative task.
It was briefly mentioned earlier that Endsley (1995) developed a three-stage hierarchical model of SA (see Figure 3). Describing this in a little more detail, at level 1 (the most basic level) SA is based on the perception of data, for example from individual display elements. The fundamental premise is that these basic building blocks (data) are the bare minimum required for a crewmember to become situationally aware. At level 2 the user needs
©2013: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects
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