Trans RINA, Vol 155, Part C1, Intl J Marine Design, Jan -Jun 2013 efficient operations. This wider approach begins to
describe the modern, system view of the Human Factors discipline.
2.
THE SHIP AS A JOINT COGNITIVE SYSTEM
Not only is a large modern ship a complex socio- technical system it can also be characterized as a Joint Cognitive System (JCS).
Modern internal
behaviour extend beyond the human. The traditional view of human cognition (as exemplified by
approaches to the
discipline of psychology) regards it as a localised phenomenon,
to the person which is explained in terms of information processing. (using procedures
information from long-term memory human then produces some sort of output
best Data
arrives at the senses; is filtered in some way to extract the most pertinent information; this is then processed in working memory
and stored
stores) and the (verbal or
motor). The prioritisation, efficiency and accuracy of information processing are determined by factors such as attention, stress, arousal and the training/knowledge of the personnel involved. However, the operation of a ship is a problem in distributed cognition. Distributed cognition (the behaviour and information contained in a JCS) is the co-ordination between individuals, artefacts (tools) and the environment.
Hutchins (1995) developed the concept of distributed cognition during his studies of the navigation of US warships.
He argued that you cannot study human
behaviour without the context in which it takes place. A ship’s crew works as a team, where everyone plays a slightly different role to achieve a common goal. People also either knowingly or unknowingly use artefacts around them to enhance their cognitive abilities. Salomon (1993) described two general categories of distributive cognition: shared cognition and off-loading. The former category describes the interactions between people engaged in a common activity. Cognition across a group (the individual and their shared representation of the situation) changes as their interactions progress. The second category of off-loading, describes cognitive tool use.
following sub-sections. 2.1 TEAMS AND DISTRIBUTED COGNITION
Rogers (1997) described four generic properties of distributed cognition in people working as a team:
possess different kinds of knowledge and so will engage in interactions that allow them to pool their cognitive resources.
Knowledge is shared by the individuals through formal and implicit communication with prior knowledge of each other, enabling them to engage in heedful interrelating during tasks. Distribution of access to sharing access and coordinated action.
information and knowledge promotes
Decisions at any level are based upon Situation Awareness (SA); good decisions are largely predicted upon good SA. Smith and Hancock (1995) proposed that ‘Situation Awareness is the up-to-the minute comprehension of task relevant information that enables appropriate decision making under stress’.
Mica
Endsley was one of the most influential scientists working in this area. Endsley (1995) developed a model of SA based upon a human information-processing approach. She defined SA as ‘the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the comprehension of
their meaning, and the projection of their status in the future’.
Distributed cognition is predicated upon a degree of common understanding of a situation amongst the ship’s crew; about the aims and objectives of the task and the required method of achieving the goal. However, not everybody in a team needs to know everything (and indeed this would be very inefficient). Endsley (1995) defined team SA as ‘the degree to which every team member possesses the SA required for responsibilities’.
his or her These two aspects are explained more fully in the
The operation of people in large, differentiated teams such as those found across the departments within a large ship begins to introduce the concepts of shared and overlapping SA. The difference between shared and overlapping SA is largely one of degree. In shared SA all crew members have a common mental model and a complete shared understanding of the current situation. In overlapping SA there will be some common elements to a crew’s SA (for example, where they are and what their immediate and longer term intent is – these elements ‘overlap’) however it is likely that each crew member will be concentrating
on responsibilities associated with their role.
their individual Some crew
members will be aware of completely different things.
Cognitive systems comprising more than one person have properties over and above those individuals making up the system (e.g. a ship and its crew).
The knowledge possessed by members of such a system is highly variable and redundant: teams working together on a collaborative task will
A graphical illustration of shared and overlapping SA of a simple crew of two manning a High Speed Craft (HSC) is depicted in Figure 2. One crew member is responsible directly for the minute-to-minute safety and control of the vessel; the other crew member is engaged in longer- term, navigation and management of the craft.
It would
actually be unproductive and inefficient for both crew to attempt to achieve complete shared SA at all times.
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©2013: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects
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