Trans RINA, Vol 155, Part C1, Intl J Marine Design, Jan - Jun 2013
DISTRIBUTED COGNITION ON MODERN SHIPS D Harris, Coventry University, UK SUMMARY
Human Factors is no longer simply concerned with the design of equipment and work stations. This old view of the Human Factors discipline is being superseded by a systems-based approach which examines all aspects of the working environment and makes little or no attempt to separate the human, machine and task environment. This socio-technical systems approach complements the latest thinking from cognitive science which regards the human use of technological artefacts as a joint cognitive system. People work in distributed teams, who all have a slightly different perspective of the system; the tools that they use serve as ‘cognitive amplifiers’ to enhance human abilities. This brief overview begins by examining the operation of ships in the context of a socio-technical system and extends this to describe them as a joint cognitive system. This is illustrated using the contrasting tasks of navigating a high speed craft and fighting a Type 23 frigate. In both cases, however, the information underpinning situation awareness belongs to neither the crew nor the vessel alone. It is an interaction between the technology and the teams on board.
1.
THE SHIP AS A SOCIO-TECHNICAL SYSTEM
Any large ship is a socio-technical system. Socio- technical systems regard organisations (or in this case a vessel) as consisting of complex interactions between personnel and technology. This organisational concept can also encompass the wider context to include the societal
infrastructures and behaviours in the wider,
shore-based management aspects of the organisation. Socio-technical systems contain people, equipment and organisational structures. These are linked by functional processes (which are essential for transforming inputs into outputs) and social processes, which are informal but which may serve to either facilitate or hinder the functional processes (McDonald, 2008).
approach for describing socio-technical systems (from Harris and Harris, 2004) is extended and adapted from the system safety model of Miller (1983).
The inter-
relationships between the five ‘M’s can be demonstrated in a simple diagram (Figure 1).
The (hu)Man aspect encompasses
of the five ‘M’s approach such issues as the size, personality,
capabilities and training of the users, in this case the vessel’s crewmembers. Taking a user-centred design approach (the traditional foundation for Human Factors or Ergonomics) the crew are the ultimate design forcing function, as the design of the equipment and procedures on the vessel have to lie within the core physical and cognitive abilities of the people involved. The (hu)Man and the Machine (ship) components come together to perform a Mission. This is tasked by the Management. It is usually the Machine and Mission components on which the engineering design processes
focus (this
includes the traditional view of Ergonomics). However, Human Factors Engineering must not only work within the parameters imposed by the crew, the ship’s technology and the environmental
aspects of the
Medium, they are also bound by the rules governing the design, construction and operation of the ship and the wider norms of society (all societal aspects of the Medium).
Figure 1 The Five ‘M’s Model (Harris and Harris, 2004).
Sailing a large vessel is not just about the integration of the crew (huMans) and ship (Machine) to undertake a particular voyage (or Mission) within the constraints imposed by the physical environment (the Medium). It is also about the societal/cultural environment (a further aspect of the Medium). Management is also crucial.
In shipping, the role of This Five ‘M’s system
It is always worth noting that performance standards for human-machine systems of any kind are ultimately determined by societal norms (regulations); for example, the level of safety required; the environmental impact or the minimum standard of user competence (licensing). Sometimes these may vary from culture-to-culture, even though shipping is an international activity. The owner’s Management must also work within these rules. The Management aspect prescribes performance standards through the selection and training of crew or the required technical performance of the ship. The Management is the key link between the (hu)Man, Machine, Mission and Medium.
It plays the integrating role that ensures compliance with the regulations and promotes safe and
©2013: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects
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