Trans RINA, Vol 155, Part C1, Intl J Marine Design, Jan - Jun 2013
Figure 3.
Endsley’s three stage model of Situation Awareness (adapted from Endsley, 1995).
to comprehend what is perceived. This requires data to be combined and processed in such a way as to provide a bigger (holistic) picture of the situation. The user needs to start to form a wider appreciation of the situation and to understand the significance of all the elements in it. At this stage data start to become information.
Finally,
level 3 SA is achieved when the they fully understand the current situation and can use that information to project ahead to predict what is likely to happen in the near future.
At this stage information starts to become
knowledge. A good display system is more than just a clear representation of data or a perceptual amplifier that allows the user to see a long way (e.g. a simple radar); it is a system that converts data into information (and even knowledge) by combining it with other data (as when combined with an integrated/overlaid chart plotter) which helps to support distributed cognition in a crew. Many modern aircraft flight decks have been criticised as being rich in data but deficient in information. The same criticism can be made of much of the equipment on ship’s bridges. The modern approach to Human Factors which approaches any workplace as a JCS aims to avoid such a problem by considering all the human and non- human elements as part of a wider, integrated system.
Extending Endsley’s (1995) three-stage model of SA (perception, comprehension, projection – which maps directly onto a tripartite input-process-output systems
©2013: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects
approach) it is possible to illustrate the concept of Distributed Situation Awareness (DSA). In the first instance this is applied to the navigation of a two-crew, High Speed Craft (HSC – see Table 1). DSA (in contrast to shared/overlapping or team SA described earlier) posits that SA can be held both by the various human and/or machine components right across a socio- technical system (Stanton, Stewart, Baber, Harris, Houghton, McMaster, Salmon, Hoyle, Walker, Young, Linsell and Dymott, 2006). Most controllers of systems nowadays
(e.g. coxswains; pilots; operators and even anaesthetists) are
process control supervisory
controllers who manage a suite of human and automated resources in order to perform a particular task. They are rarely ‘hands-on’ controllers actively involved in the minute-to-minute’ control of a system. The automation they use is almost as much a part of the team as the other humans with whom they work. They are all part of a wider JCS.
Unlike earlier conceptualisations of SA, DSA operates at a systems level, not at the individual level. It is not shared SA.
Shared (team) SA implies the same
collective requirements and purposes amongst the human and machine components in a system, all of whom share some aspects of the understanding of a commonly held ‘bigger picture’. DSA implies different but compatible, requirements and purposes. Furthermore, the appropriate
C-5
Page 1 |
Page 2 |
Page 3 |
Page 4 |
Page 5 |
Page 6 |
Page 7 |
Page 8 |
Page 9 |
Page 10 |
Page 11 |
Page 12 |
Page 13 |
Page 14 |
Page 15 |
Page 16 |
Page 17 |
Page 18 |
Page 19 |
Page 20 |
Page 21 |
Page 22 |
Page 23 |
Page 24 |
Page 25 |
Page 26 |
Page 27 |
Page 28 |
Page 29 |
Page 30 |
Page 31 |
Page 32 |
Page 33 |
Page 34 |
Page 35 |
Page 36 |
Page 37 |
Page 38 |
Page 39 |
Page 40 |
Page 41 |
Page 42 |
Page 43 |
Page 44 |
Page 45 |
Page 46 |
Page 47 |
Page 48 |
Page 49 |
Page 50 |
Page 51 |
Page 52 |
Page 53 |
Page 54 |
Page 55 |
Page 56 |
Page 57 |
Page 58 |
Page 59 |
Page 60 |
Page 61 |
Page 62 |
Page 63 |
Page 64 |
Page 65 |
Page 66 |
Page 67 |
Page 68 |
Page 69 |
Page 70 |
Page 71 |
Page 72 |
Page 73 |
Page 74 |
Page 75 |
Page 76 |
Page 77 |
Page 78 |
Page 79 |
Page 80 |
Page 81 |
Page 82 |
Page 83 |
Page 84 |
Page 85 |
Page 86 |
Page 87 |
Page 88 |
Page 89 |
Page 90 |
Page 91 |
Page 92 |
Page 93 |
Page 94 |
Page 95 |
Page 96 |
Page 97 |
Page 98