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such as coal-fired power plants and the transport sector, are not changing as quickly as needed to achieve the targets and additional policies to accelerate change will be needed to achieve the mandatory emissions cuts. Finally, since much of the country’s existing environmental legislation arises from membership of the EU, a wide range of new policies and programmes would be needed after the British exit (UK, Committee on Climate Change 2017).


12.2.2 Technology and emissions standards


One of the most common approaches to address challenges related to air quality and climate change is to define emissions standards or other performance standards for specific industrial processes, equipment or products. Such standards may mandate that a process, piece of equipment or product should not emit more than a specified mass of emissions of a given pollutant per unit of time, input or output. For example, boilers used to generate electricity may be limited to a mass of emissions per kilowatt-hour generated; vehicles are typically limited to certain emissions per kilometre (km) travelled. Alternatively, a standard may require the application of a specific type of technology or a specific operational practice. For example, to limit emissions of fugitive dust from a construction site, vehicles leaving the site may be required to go through a wheel wash station. In most cases, standards are designed to be neutral with respect to the choice of fuel or to the choice of a control manufacturer, but the general principle is that the polluter is responsible for attaining the standard and hence should bear the cost of emissions control. For example, polluters are responsible for retrofitting existing technologies, where specific equipment needs to be installed to achieve existing or new emissions standards. Where emissions control technologies are integrated into new equipment—for example, in the case of vehicles that comply with Euro emissions standards, which must pass type approval at production—the costs of emissions control are included in the unit price.


The implementation and enforcement of technology and emissions standards present a direct measure affecting ‘pressures’ and contribute to the attainment of the emissions targets and budgets, the desired ‘state’ established in a planning regime (see Figure 1.2, Chapter 1). Often referred to as ‘command and control’ regulations, technology and emissions standards may be implemented and enforced through permit programmes, type approval schemes, inspections and audits, and reinforced by emissions monitoring and reporting requirements. Technology and emissions standards, however, may also be developed and applied voluntarily by industry groups, self-policed or subject to third-party verification, and associated with branding programmes (see section 12.2.4). Lifestyle choices and consumption patterns may play a vital role in determining the effectiveness of voluntary approaches.


Different standards in jurisdictions in the same geographical market increase the costs to manufacturers of products and equipment, which are required to meet the various standards. Although regulatory compliance costs are only one factor that affects business location decisions, a lack of harmonization of standards can lead to shifts in economic activity and associated emissions between jurisdictions as businesses seek locations with lower overall compliance costs. Therefore, standards are typically defined at the national level, taking into account standards in other countries, jurisdictions and markets.


Under the US Clean Air Act, New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) define a minimum level of air pollution control for all major new industrial emissions sources across the country, but more stringent standards may be applied depending on the level of existing pollution. To prevent the deterioration of air quality in areas already meeting the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) short-term exposure to air pollution, new major sources are required to use Best Available Control Technology (BACT), which is determined on a case-by-case basis as part of a permitting process and is at least as stringent as the NSPS. In polluted areas that already exceed the NAAQS, major new sources are required to meet the Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (LAER), which reflects the most stringent requirements in practice. Existing sources in such areas are required to meet the less stringent standard of Reasonably Available Control Technology (RACT). The USEPA maintains a database of these standards and case- by-case determinations in what is known as the RACT/BACT/ LAER Clearinghouse (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2018b). As technology evolves, so do the RACT/ BACT/LAER determinations, but by making the information public, the standards in different jurisdictions can evolve together. Likewise, the Industrial Emissions Directive (2010/75/ EU) regulates industrial activities in Europe and also uses a legally binding concept of ‘Best Available Techniques’ (BAT) to set environmental performance levels which industry must achieve (European Commission 2018b). The definition of a BAT is done through a transparent exchange of information between industry, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and regulators, and is recognized beyond the EU.


For marine shipping emissions, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL, Annex VI) (International Maritime Organization [IMO] 2018) set standards for a global limit for sulphur in fuel oil used on board ships of 0.50 per cent m/m (mass by mass), to enter into force on 1 January 2020, representing a fuel-based standard. Compliance can be achieved by ships using low-sulphur compliant fuel oil. In contrast, a nitrogen oxide (NOx


) Emission Control Area


(NECA), which will enter into force for the North Sea and the Baltic Sea from 1 January 2021, will require all vessels built after 2021 to comply with emissions standards aimed to reduce NOx


emissions by 80 per cent compared to present


levels. Compliance can only be achieved in practice by equipping vessels with catalysts or using liquefied natural gas (LNG) fuels. Existing emission control areas for sulphur oxide (SOx


) cover the Baltic Sea (19 May 2006) and the North Sea (22 November 2007), and for SOx


and NOx the North American


east and west coasts (1 August 2012) and the US Caribbean Sea (1 January 2014).


The effectiveness of technology and emissions standards depends on the level of compliance, affordability and the extent to which the standards reflect the real-world impact of the emissions sources. The level of compliance, in turn, depends on the level of education, as well as monitoring and enforcement, among other factors. However, in countries or jurisdictions where the government has little capacity to enforce standards through inspections and audits, compliance with standards can be low. Even in countries where sophisticated inspections and audits are routine, some businesses and individuals may violate standards to gain a competitive economic advantage.


Air Policy 307


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