32 J. S. Alexander et al.


2015; Jacobsen & Linnell, 2016; Bavin et al., 2023). One chal- lenge is that people’s attitudes towards interactions with wildlife are often influenced by the goals they have for activ- ities that could be affected by carnivores (Eklund et al., 2023). However, there is limited information available on these goals and how they specifically shape interactions with lynxes. A better knowledge of the motivations under- lying hunting and pastoralism could inform lynx conserva- tion and management strategies that are relevant to the local context and based on mutual respect, trust and understand- ing (Eklund et al., 2020, 2023; Managi et al., 2022). The lynx became locally extinct in the French Alps in the


1920s but is thought to have recently re-established itself from individuals reintroduced to the Jura and Swiss Alps (Vandel & Stahl, 2005). Across France, systematic monitor- ing has been in place since the 1980s through the Loup-Lynx expert network (Vandel and Stahl, 1996, 2005). Monitoring is based on reports of lynx observations at a 100 km2 scale by trained citizen scientists (Molinari-Jobin et al., 2018). Further investment is needed to complement these efforts, to assess and monitor lynx distribution and population status in more detail and understand human perspectives in relation to the return of the lynx in the French Alps (Gatti, 2022). Here we investigate the knowledge and experiences of


hunters and pastoralists regarding the return of the lynx to an alpine valley in France. Specifically, we explore why hunting and livestock herding activities are important to local stakeholders, and their perceptions of how these activ- ities might be affected by the current and future presence of lynxes. Additionally, we collected accounts of lynx sightings spanning the past 4 decades to estimate the probability of lynx site use within the valley.


Study area


We conducted the study in the Giffre Valley in the northern French Alps (within the Haute Savoie region). The valley features a diverse landscape over 600–2,400 m elevation and encompasses various land uses. Forests cover 165 km2 (c. 45%), primarily comprising coniferous (39%), deciduous (34%) and mixed (23%) forests. The human population of the valley was 14,318 in 2019, with a substantial seasonal in- flux of visitors, amounting to over four million person- nights in a given year (INSEE, 2023). Hunting occurs throughout the Giffre territory and is or-


ganized nationally through the Fédération Nationale des Chasseurs and through hunting associations at the com- mune level. The number of registered hunters in Haute Savoie was c. 8,000 in 2022, with c. 300 in the Giffre valley. The hunting season is from early September to late January, with species-specific hunting quotas and periods. The num- ber of hunting days varies according to commune and sec- tors. A wide array of species are hunted, including chamois Rupicapra rupicapra, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, red deer


Cervus elaphus, wild boar Sus scrofa and hares Lepus timidus and Lepus europeus, and bird species such as the black grouse Lyrurus tetrix. Large carnivores such as lynxes and grey wolves Canis lupus are, however, protected. The valley also has a long tradition of pastoralism and is


known for its dairy products, including local cheese special- ities. Approximately 113 agricultural holdings covering a total area of 93 km2 (not including summer pastures) are used for raising livestock, primarily cattle (65%), with some sheep and goats. Tourism provides another major source of revenue, with snow sports in the winter and sum- mer activities such as trekking, biking, rafting and moun- taineering (L’Agence Savoie Mont Blanc, 2022). All eight communes of the Giffre Valley were included in the study, covering an area of 364 km2 (Fig. 1). In the context of conservation initiatives in France, the


Lynx National Action Plan (Gatti, 2022)delineatesastrategic framework for the conservation of lynx species for 2022–2026. This plan is the result of collaborative stakeholder efforts and is overseen by the Regional Directorate for the Environment, Planning and Housing of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, with support from the French Biodiversity Agency. We aimed to address the two axes outlined in the Action Plan, focusing on enhancing coexistence with human activities (objectives 1.3, 1.5 and 1.6) and mitigating threats to species viability while removing barriers to its expansion (objective 2.1).


Methods


Data collection Weconducted interviews to record respondent observations of lynx in the last 4 decades and to explore respondents’ perceptions of the impact of lynx presence on their hunting and farming activities. The interviews took place during June 2022–January 2023.We used snowball sampling to re- cruit participants, seeking to ensure spatial representation of hunters and livestock herders across all eight com- munes and participants from different hunting groups and pastoralist families, to gain diverse perspectives. The interviewswere guided by a semi-structured question-


naire, divided into three sections (Supplementary Tables 1–4). In the first section, respondentswere presented with photos of the Eurasian lynx, European wildcat Felis silvestris,red fox Vulpes vulpes and grey wolf. These images served as a conver- sation opener before we asked subsequent questions to assess knowledge of these species.We then collected information on respondent demographics and attributes that could affect de- tection of the study species, including gender, age range, commune of residence, respondent’s hunting and farming practices, time spent in the field, areas hunted or used by live- stock, and other occupations. Respondents were asked to map their area of knowledge, defined as places they frequently visit in the commune, which was used to ascertain detection


Oryx, 2025, 59(1), 31–39 © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605324000334


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