28 R. A. Shidqi et al. Secondly, conflicts eventually resulted in negative behav-
ioural outcomes, but thesewere rooted in historical commu- nity rifts that became perspicuous throughout the project. Such conflicts are commonly observed in natural resources management sectors such as agriculture and forestry, resulting in strained relationships between communities, government and private entities (Wulan et al., 2004; Nulhaqim et al., 2019). Facilitating the resolution of these socio-political rifts is therefore imperative to avoid per- petuating a culture of conflict that hinders cooperation (Rastogi et al., 2014; Colvin et al., 2015). In summary, our project demonstrated that livelihood-
based interventions for shark conservation can succeed. However, as the ultimate goal of such interventions is to shift entrenched behaviour and practices of communities embedded in dynamic socio-ecological systems (Reddy et al., 2017; Booth et al., 2023), they require substantial plan- ning and local engagement from the outset, coupled with adaptive management and sustained, long-term investment (Hussein & Nelson, 1998; Booth et al., 2021). This also re- quires developing and establishing structures that align with the diverse socio-cultural drivers of behaviour, such as religious or Indigenous cultural values, including ancestral beliefs and practices (Bhagwat et al., 2011; Rim-Rukeh et al., 2013; Mcleod & Palmer, 2015). Integrating these factors can foster equity, legitimacy, compliance and sustained moti- vation to follow new practices that achieve long-term con- servation objectives and support the well-being of local communities.
Author contributions Conceptualization and design: RAS, DRS, JA, PNSK, HB, ES; data collection, analysis and interpretation: RAS, DRS, JA, PNSK, YMB, IA; writing and revision: all authors.
Acknowledgements We thank the Conservation Leadership Programme, Shark Conservation Fund, Ocean Blue Tree, MAC3 Impact Philanthropies, CEPF Wallacea II, Australia Awards Alumni Grant Scheme, The Darwin Initiative, East-West Center, Found at Sea Collective, Oceanmata, SEACoast at UC Santa Cruz, OASEA laborator- ies, Interdisciplinary Centre for Conservation Science (ICCS) at the University Oxford, Duke University, and Student Conference on Conservation Science (SCCS) at the University of Cambridge for fund- ing; our partners, the Department of Fisheries andMarine of East Nusa Tenggara Province and the Government of Alor, for their support; Rahmad Zainuddin, Air Dive Alor, Ibu Paulina (Uli) Pandjaitan, Dr Mark Erdmann, Shawn Heinrichs, Sarah Lewis, Montse Amores, Ramon Estrada, Tom Sparke, Bestari Ghea Dwilo, Agustin Capriati, Eka Maya Kurniasih, Andrianus Sembiring and Ni Luh Astria Yusmalinda for their assistance in project mobilization; and Itsar Fuadi for creating the map. RAS acknowledges MAC3 Impact Philanthropies and WWF Russell E. Train Fellowship for funding his PhD studies at Marine Science and Conservation Program at Duke University. HB ac- knowledges the Darwin Initiative for funding her position at the University of Oxford (grant number 30-008).
Conflicts of interest None.
Ethical standards This research abided by the Oryx guidelines on ethical standards. Specifically, principal investigators RAS and DRS
are Indonesian citizens with full rights to conduct research in their home country. All research processes adhered to ethical requirements, including obtaining free, prior and informed consent before inter- views, and the freedom to withdraw from any intervention steps. The data of project participants are kept confidential. RAS initiated this project before enrolling in the PhD program at Duke University; Institutional Review Board approval was therefore not obligatory before commencing the research, and ethical clearance was not re- quired. However, all processes followed appropriate ethical standards, including disclosure, voluntariness, understanding, competence and consent (Vilma, 2018), and mandatory research permits were obtained from the National and local governments. The field team members responsible for data collection, JA, PNSK, YMB, IA, are Indigenous to East Nusa Tenggara. The project operates under Thresher Shark Indonesia, a registered Indonesian non-profit organization (AHU- 0019789.AH.01.04.Tahun 2020), ensuring compliance with national and local regulations and obtaining necessary permits for all project activities.
Data availability The data on social surveys are not publicly avail- able to protect the privacy of research participants.
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Oryx, 2025, 59(1), 19–30 © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605324001376
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