Low fuel quality in non-EU countries The increasing fleet of utility and private vehicles, and of ships, has noticeably increased total fuel consumption; this is of particular concern in non-EU countries in the region which tend to have sub-standard transport systems and above- average fuel consumption per unit. While this situation could theoretically be changed very rapidly through the introduction of higher fuel standards, there appears to be little movement in this direction so far, even though there are benefits from higher-quality fuels, as demonstrated, for example, in the POSEIDON MED project (Poseidon 2015).


Infrastructure development Grey infrastructure, such as roads, railways, buildings and utilities, determines the efficiency hence use of resources and energy and pollution levels of cities. Western European traditions and lifestyles in generally much older cities still very much adhere to smaller scales and an emphasis on quality of life. In these settings, smart urban design is including green spaces and air corridors to create better air exchange and natural cooling. There are also efforts to save energy by encouraging the use of sustainable transport, for example, by using efficient, reliable and affordable collective transport and providing convenient walking and cycling infrastructure, which has the additional benefit of reducing health costs due to major improvements in urban dwellers’ quality of life.


At the other end of the scale, the pan-European region has two mega-cities with populations above 10 million (Istanbul and Moscow), several big cities (Berlin, London and Paris) and one large metropolitan area (Rhine-Ruhr). Much of the infrastructure of these urban areas requires modernization, renovation and restructuring of infrastructure, as well as efficient, affordable public transport services.


Similar problems also exist in many of the mono-industrial cities in the region with dense agglomerations of heavy industry or mining complexes, particularly in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. In such areas, urban development is coupled to sub-standard building regulations, insufficient insulation, poor waste disposal and treatment, increased vehicle traffic


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and related pollution, adding to point source pollution from factories and power plants.


Natural sources of air pollution and natural disasters Natural sources of emissions include pollen releases and volcanic activity. Windstorms, droughts and large-scale wildfires contribute significantly to increased emissions of soot, carbon oxides and a sequence of organic compounds and particulate matter. Sand and dust storms are of serious concern, especially in parts of Central Asia, the Russian Federation and Turkey. This concern is also shared by other regions.


2.3.3 Clean air is still at risk


Multiple pressures persist, with partly linked consequences for air quality. These include direct air pollution through various types of emissions and indirect sources such as traffic, land-use change, land degradation and overuse of ground water.


Emissions


While industrial emissions, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter are generally decreasing in the EU, land-use related emissions, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter persist at high levels and are still increasing in the rest of the pan-European region (Fuzzi et al. 2015; Monks et al. 2015). The same is true for incineration technologies, which may emit a wide range of pollutants including dioxins and furans, and of trace metals under conditions of sub-standard technologies. These sources, because of high-temperature processes, may release pollutants that move higher up in the troposphere, resulting in long-range transport (LRT). Domestic emissions have mainly local effects, mostly from incomplete combustion in heating and cooking systems, soot and particulate matter. These appear to be mostly restricted to parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Agricultural practices have highly differentiated effects (such as from emissions of particulate matter and agrochemicals) with the lowest emissions from conservation farming and the highest from industrial agricultural practices. Construction activities release particulate matter and degassing, mainly from various building materials. More pronounced drought


GEO-6 Assessment for the pan-European Region


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