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While floods can develop over short timescales such as a couple of days, droughts usually develop as a result of low precipitation over several months or years. This can make it difficult to find good data on long-term drought trends (EEA 2012d). Spinoni et al. (2015) have compiled data on major European drought events (meteorological and hydrological droughts) between 1950 and 2012. According to their analysis, the highest drought frequency and severity could be observed in Western and Southern Europe between 1991 and 2010; the Mediterranean area in particular was affected. Further, the authors found a small but continuous increase of European area prone to drought since the 1980s. The EM-DAT database reports 25 drought occurrences within the pan-European region for the time period 2000 to 2015, which affected 8.67 million people and caused total damages of more than US$9 billion (Guha-Sapir et al. 2016; Below et al. 2007). A small longitudinal study, carried out in 1998 in the UK, reported that the physical effects of flood events were observed in about 60 per cent of survey respondents and that they lasted an average of about 12 months, whereas mental health impacts were observed in 75 per cent of respondents and lasted more than twice as long (Jakubicka et al. 2010).


2.6.5 Ambient water quality: regional variations and needs


Wastewater is a major contributor to water quality degradation and therefore poses a risk to human and ecosystem health. About 50 000 million cubic metres of wastewater was generated in Western and Central Europe in 2010, a reduction of 11 per cent since 2000 (Flörke et al. 2013). In comparison, quantities of wastewater increased by 18-48 per cent in the other pan-European sub-regions. Changes in wastewater generation are a result of changes in freshwater use and connection rate. Leaks in sewerage systems can result in either infiltration or exfiltration, depending on local groundwater tables. Exfiltration of wastewater may result in contamination of groundwater, and thereby compromise groundwater resources where they are required for human consumption, particularly in cities. Infiltration contributes to diluting wastewater and leads to roughly proportional increases in pollution loads released into the environment. In the EECCA region, the tendency seems to be towards


December 2015 flood of the river Ouse in York, UK Credit: Shutterstock/Phil MacD Photography


increasing generation of wastewater and thus water pollution as urban populations grow, material consumption increases and untreated wastewater volumes multiply. This is also due to insufficient and aging wastewater treatment plants.


On average, almost 100 per cent of the urban population and 85 per cent of the rural population have access to and use improved drinking water sources in the pan-European region overall, whereas access is lower in rural areas in Central Europe (38 per cent) and Central Asia (77 per cent). The situation is


Aerial view of public sewage treatment plant for 165, 000


inhabitants of Pilsen city in Czech Republic, Europe Credit: Shutterstock/Kletr


111


Chapter 2: Environmental State and Trends


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