All other countries in the pan-European region have participated in the UNFCCC/Kyoto process, though in many cases without binding emissions targets, and in the Montreal Protocol to protect the stratospheric ozone layer that also contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Velders et al. 2007).


The EU has also been committed to finding climate change solutions (IEA 2014a) and assisting other countries to deliver on their commitments (Fischer and Geden 2015). The policy measures already adopted (More...34) are expected to deliver a 20 per cent emissions’ reduction by 2020, when compared to 1990 levels (EC 2015a), rising to 40 per cent and potentially more by 2030 for the EU as a whole, although there remain some issues that impede their effectiveness when implemented by Member States (EC 2014a).


Every country in the region participated in the UNFCCC Paris Agreement (More...35), and submitted an Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC), using either a base year target for GHG or a base year scenario, along with an intensity target. However, as the UNEP Emissions Gap Report shows, even with the added impetus of INDCs, the global emissions gap between the current policy projections and the emission levels consistent with the 2ºC maximum remains substantial (UNEP 2015a).


Progress in the EECCA region The development of climate change mitigation policy in many EECCA countries is still under development. To date, policies have lacked robustness or have not been supported by a strong institutional base, and consequently, have been poorly integrated into the economy (CAN 2015). In general, all sub-regional GHG emission reductions can be attributable to the economic decline of the 1990s, rather than implementation of low-carbon strategies.


Barriers to a lower carbon economy include the high energy intensity of some sub-regional economies, which tend to significantly exceed the average for Western Europe, weak energy efficiency governance and energy pricing policies that do not encourage investment in efficiency measures. Many


of the EECCA countries have not taken advantage of the benefits of well-elaborated medium- to long-term energy strategies or policy-setting mechanisms (IEA 2014b). Thus far, half of the EECCA countries have targets for renewable energy generation, but few have specific mechanisms for its development, other than the introduction of green tariffs in Kazakhstan and Ukraine.


Further policy options and opportunities Countries in the pan-European region could play an even larger role in making the Paris Agreement succeed. This is urgently needed in order to maintain an effective reference point for the multitude of local, national and regional measures seeking to meet global targets and thus support progress towards relevant SDGs. Many countries in the region, notably those that have no formal targets under the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, could adopt and implement more ambitious INDCs, including national laws and regulations, in order to move towards per person and per unit of GDP emission levels that line up with the front-runners in the region.


There are many still unexploited opportunities to use enhanced international cooperation and funding to achieve stronger mitigation and adaptation measures in the poorer countries of the region. One of many examples is Uzbekistan, which is one of the most carbon-intensive countries in the world, and where international cooperation and funding could play a key role in reducing carbon-based energy subsidies and increasing investment in renewables and energy efficiency. For example, the European Investment Bank, which is the world’s largest public financial institution, plans to increase support for renewables and energy efficiency and reduce funding for carbon-based energy production.


Public institutions and institutional investors have begun to pull out of carbon-stranded assets – assets that may lose economic value before the end of their expected lifetimes, mainly as a result of changes in regulations and technology. Market forces, environmental concerns and societal norms are considered significant factors contributing to shifting to low-carbon assets. The Fourth Swedish National Pension


57


Chapter 2: Environmental State and Trends


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