Case study Box 2.3.1: Major air pollutants of concern in the pan-European region
• Particulate matter (PM): emitted directly and formed in the atmosphere. Primary forms arise from natural sources such as sea salt, naturally suspended dust, pollen and volcanic ash and from anthropogenic sources such as household burning of solid fuels, road transport and heat and power production. Secondary particulate matter is formed from precursor gases, including sulphur dioxide (SO2
), nitrogen oxides (NOx ), ammonia (NH3
and coalesce to form secondary inorganic aerosols. PM includes ultrafine particles, < 0.1 micrometres in diameter which are emitted from traffic, domestic heating and industrial processes; they have little mass but high numbers and surface area concentrations, and a high content of elemental and organic carbon.
• Black carbon (BC): made up of the light-absorbing carbon constituent of aerosol particles, and emitted directly from the incomplete burning of fossil fuels, biomass and biofuels, particularly from diesel vehicles, mobile machinery, ships, residential heating (e.g. small coal or wood burning stoves) and open biomass burning (e.g. forest fires or burning of agricultural waste) (EEA 2015f; UNEP and WMO 2011).
• Ground level ozone (O3 between emissions of precursor gases including nitrogen oxides (NOx
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx • Sulphur oxides (SOx • Methane (CH4
): a secondary pollutant, formed through chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight and heat ) and non-methane volatile organic compounds
(NMVOCs) from transport, industrial activities and solvents and organic carbon, carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH4 at the continental scale.
) pollutant, it is a precursor of ground level O3
): emitted from power plants and vehicles and mainly comprised of nitrogen monoxide (NO). ): emitted from domestic heating, power generation and transport and from volcanoes as a natural source. ): emitted from agriculture, waste management and energy production and although not strictly a .
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) including as benzo(a)pyrene (BaP): emitted from the incomplete combustion of fuels, fires and domestic heating, in particular wood- and coal-burning, waste burning, coke and steel production and road traffic. As with other persistent organic pollutants, these can undergo reversible atmospheric deposition and so “re-pollute”.
• Hazardous chemicals including POPs and heavy metals including: mercury (Hg), as well as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni) are emitted from combustion of fossil fuels, waste incineration and metal incineration.
atmosphere from precursor gases (Box 2.3.1)) are regulated or monitored on a systematic basis by national governments and assessed by two key regional bodies, the EEA and UNECE. The effects of these pollutants can be both localized, for example, particulate matter (PM) and ozone (O3
) impacts on human
health, and regional and hemispheric, for example, the effects of ozone and black carbon on the radiative balance of the planet. Significant concentrations of secondary pollutants in fine particles in cities are also caused by long-range transport of ammonia, sulphur and nitrogen oxides. The complexity of the reactions and the chemical behaviour of pollutants under different atmospheric conditions means that climate change
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will have a significant impact in the future on air quality in the region (EEA 2015f; UNEP and WMO 2011).
2.3.2 Multiple drivers of air pollution
Multiple drivers have been identified that impact on air quality in the pan-European environment, but lifestyles and consumption patterns, including transport are having the greatest effects. Some related sectoral policy-driven changes, such as the abolition of leaded gasoline across the region and the implementation of clean air acts have had immediate and positive effects.
) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), that react
GEO-6 Assessment for the pan-European Region
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