The benefits of urban green infrastructure


Urban green infrastructure delivers various ecosystem services, such as reducing the urban heat island effect (Shishegar 2014; Bowler et al. 2010), and air pollution (Escobedo et al. 2011), attenuating storm water and reducing the risk of flooding (Liu et al. 2014). In addition, research suggests that exposure to urban greenery may be health protective by reducing stress and increasing a population’s physical activity levels (Hartig et al. 2014). Access to urban green spaces also promotes cognitive development among children (Dadvand et al. 2015), improves pregnancy outcomes (Dadvand et al. 2012) and mental health (Triguero- Mas et al. 2015), and prevents neurophysiologically induced depression symptoms (Bratman et al. 2015). Several studies also show reduced premature mortality in urban green areas (Gascon et al. 2016).


Various tools exist for evaluating and estimating costs and benefits of green or nature-based solutions. The i-Tree software is a state-of-the-art, peer-reviewed software suite from the United States Department of Agriculture’s (US$A) Forest Service that can be applied all over the pan-European region, providing urban greenery analysis and benefits assessment, including health aspects (Nowak et al. 2014; Nowak et al. 2013).


Urban agriculture


Food security has always been a key resilience facet for people living in cities. Urban and peri-urban farming and gardening are re-emerging approaches for improving ecological performance within cities (Barthel and Isendahl 2013). Urban agriculture can also be crucial for social opportunities and new job creation with the perspective of integrating both ecological and urban services in the framework of more attractive cities (Rigillo and Majello 2014). Integrating food and agriculture in urban planning may reduce poverty, increase sustainability, biodiversity, and quality of life in European cities (Vitiello 2008). Certain concerns regarding soil contamination and plant uptake in urban areas have been raised, but recent reviews suggest that the benefits associated with urban agriculture outweigh any risks posed by elevated contaminant levels (Brown et al. 2016; Cruz et al. 2014)


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27:


Impact Assessments


Impact assessments enable policy makers to consider the implications of the decisions they take and provide a process through which many issues including human health and the environment can be examined (WHO 2014d).


The Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive (European Parliament and Council of the European Union 2001) presents an opportunity to do this at a strategic level, as it requires the consideration of the likely significant effects on a range of topics including population and human health. The Directive, which came into force across the EU in 2004 and is binding for all 28 Member States, applies to a wide range of plans and programmes (European Parliament and Council of the European Union 2001). Furthermore, the parties to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe’s Espoo Convention (United Nations Economic Commission for 1991) produced the SEA Protocol (United Nations 2010), which is close to becoming a global agreement on SEA. It uses the term “environment and health” throughout, requiring health authorities to be consulted at different stages of the process.


Environmental impact assessments (EIA) may be statutorily required for some large project proposals. The EIA Directive (Council of the European Union 1985 ) states that the effects of a project on the environment must be assessed in order to take account of concerns to protect human health. Recent EIA Directive changes, to be transposed into national legislation by spring 2017, require that human health is included in the scoping of all EIAs (European Parliament and Council of the European Union 2014). The changes require that EIA identify, describe and assess, in an appropriate manner and in the light of each individual case, the direct and indirect significant effects of a project on population and human health.


28:


Intersectoral approaches and the precautionary principle for long-term health in a healthy environment


The recognition of a need for inter-sectoral, integrated research and policy action for public health and well-being is not new (Daily et al. 2009; WHO 1989). In both research


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