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Increasing density alone is insufficient to make the transition to sustainable cities. Another factor that affects urban impact on the environment is urban form, namely the pattern of urban physical infrastructure, which cannot be easily modified, and determines land use, transportation and energy demand for long periods of time (Seto et al. 2016; Güneralp et al. 2017). Form patterns have implications for energy consumption, GHG emissions, biodiversity (Seto, Güneralp and Hutyra 2012; Salat, Chen and Liu 2014), water infrastructure (Farmani and Butler 2014) and land use and conversion of croplands (Bren d’Amour et al. 2016). Urban form, “infrastructure design and socio-spatial disparities within cities are emerging as critical determinants of human health and well-being” (Ramaswami et al. 2016, p. 940).


2.4.4 Urbanization as an opportunity 2


In a world where environmental limits are visibly closer, and with rural to urban migration expected to continue, urban population growth can represent an opportunity to increase citizens’ well-being while decreasing their ecological footprint. This is made possible through lifestyle choices, improved governance, awareness and education programmes, the availability of infrastructure and services, and technological solutions. Small and medium cities have a particularly important role to play as they are usually a stepping stone between rural populations and urban centres (UN-Habitat 2015c, p. 3). In other words, urbanization can be positive, but will only amplify existing challenges if poorly managed. If cities could build technological solutions that took advantage of economies of scale not feasible in rural contexts, they could potentially hold the promise of limiting the negative environmental effects of population growth and increased consumption.


2.5 Economic development


The term economic development has been used in the literature to distinguish it from a one-dimensional measure of human welfare, which focused solely on economic growth (or, properly speaking, the growth in GDP). It includes, for example, social equity, poverty eradication, the meeting of basic human needs (access to health, education, and water and sanitation services), the provision of physical infrastructure (housing, energy, transport and communications), and the guarantee of essential political, economic, and social freedoms as elaborated by Sen (2011). Similarly, the term economic development highlights structural transformation, namely the changes in industrial structure (from an agriculture-based structure towards industry and services), social organization (from small-scale productive activities towards large-scale organizational structures), and the diversification of skills. The SDGs are derived from this broader concept of economic development.


2.5.1 The social role of economic growth


As the economy has moved from an ‘empty world’ to a ‘full world’ (Daly 1973), it has become clear that conventional growth cannot continue far into the future (United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] 2011). Yet the social and political commitment to a vision of unending growth remains as strong as ever. The reasons are easy to see. Economic


growth plays a number of vital roles in modern society, including poverty eradication, the pursuit of social justice, the building of social solidarity, the defence of civic peace and the establishment of good governance.


The most important of these is poverty eradication. Two and a half centuries after the advent of the Industrial Revolution, about 783 million people (10.7 per cent of the global population), still live on less than US$1.90 per day, and 48.7 per cent of the population lives on less than US$5.50 per day (World Bank Group 2013). Globally, about 22 per cent of children are stunted and 7.5 per cent are underweight (UNICEF 2018a) while 264 million children and adolescents are unable to enter or complete school (UNICEF 2018b), the majority of them girls. Nearly 2.1 billion lack access to safely managed water and 2.3 billion lack basic sanitation (UNICEF/WHO 2017).


This poverty is not because of a lack of economic resources. In 2017, the world’s average income per capita was $16,906 per year (PPP, current international $), which is $46 per day (World Bank Group 2018) and about 24 times the poverty threshold. While redistributive policies and social security arrangements can help people to cope with poverty, the only reliable mechanism for eradicating poverty is to enable the poor to benefit from fast, steady growth.


Another argument for economic growth in developing countries is the need to narrow the huge income gap that separates them from developed countries. Indeed, this gap continued to widen well into the second half of the 20th century. Only in the 21st century was there evidence of a narrowing of the gap, as growth rates in developing countries began to outstrip those in developed countries (Figure 2.12).5


As such, even critics of the growth agenda agree that it is essential for developing countries (see, e.g. Jackson 2009, p. 4). Their main critique focuses on developed countries, where growth is, they argue, neither necessary nor desirable (see Daly 1973; Rees 1995; Victor 2008; Jackson 2009). Others (e.g. Friedman 2005) argue, however, that growth continues to play important political roles in developed countries, including supporting fairness, social mobility and social solidarity, while attracting popular support for civic and international peace (Benhabib and Rustichini 1996, p. 139; Weede 1996, p. 32; Gartzke 2007, p. 180).


In sum, then, the recent episodes of global economic growth are associated with:


a. a narrowing of the income gap between developed and developing countries, and


b. a huge dent in the incidence of poverty in the latter countries.


The danger is that if the growth engine slows down, these trends may not continue, and this could – as outlined in the report of the United Nations Secretary-General on climate


5 This was in large part due to the higher growth rate in the large populous economies, especially China and India, but was not restricted to them. Indeed, the first decade of this century witnessed the first occasion when sub-Saharan developing countries, as a group, grew by more than 5 per cent per year for 5 years. However, the global financial crisis has resulted in the slowing of average developing country growth rates by 2-3 per cent, and a widening in the variance in growth rates, as larger countries (e.g., Brazil, China, Germany and the United States) recovered more quickly than smaller economies.


36


Setting the Stage


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