search.noResults

search.searching

dataCollection.invalidEmail
note.createNoteMessage

search.noResults

search.searching

orderForm.title

orderForm.productCode
orderForm.description
orderForm.quantity
orderForm.itemPrice
orderForm.price
orderForm.totalPrice
orderForm.deliveryDetails.billingAddress
orderForm.deliveryDetails.deliveryAddress
orderForm.noItems
Some publicly available data sets aim to help chart the diffusion of environmental policies, particularly related to climate change and, more specifically, to renewable energy policy. The London School of Economics’ Climate Change Laws of the World Database (Nachmany et al. 2017), for example, compiles information on national-level climate policies ranging from adaptation to mitigation to transport. Similarly, REN21’s Global Status Report charts the use of renewable energy policies across a large sample of national and subnational jurisdictions. International organizations, such as the International Energy Agency (IEA), also collect information on renewable energy-related policies in use across a large sample of jurisdictions. The quality of all these data sets, though, varies, as does the method of collection, categorization of policies and the level of detailed policy information included. This problem relates to what has been coined the “dependent variable problem in the study of policy change” (Howlett and Cashore 2009)—i.e. the underlying challenge of how to assess policy output systematically across cases. While efforts have been made to develop a common methodology for measuring policy output in a comparable way (e.g. Knill, Schulze and Tosun 2012; Schaffrin, Sewerin and Seubert 2015), these approaches are only slowly being taken up, and most policy dynamics analysis continues to apply diverse or ad hoc concepts and measurements of policy output. Thus, despite prolonged interest in the topic and efforts to provide systematic policy information, knowledge of the spatial diffusion of environmental policies, especially outside the specific policy field of renewable energy, remains limited.


11.2.2 Temporal dynamics: policy change over time


If and how policies change over time and what factors drive these changes are important topics in the academic literature. The different approaches for understanding policy change can be categorized, on the one hand, in path-dependency literature, which stresses that early policy decisions lock in policy choices and that most policies only change incrementally after they are implemented (Pierson 2000). The main reason for such stability is thought to be positive feedback, through for example, policy learning that creates and sustains self-reinforcing processes around a policy. On the other hand, the punctuated equilibrium approach seeks to explain how otherwise stable policies can unravel in a sudden burst of abrupt, non-incremental change (Baumgartner and Jones 2009; Colgan, Keohane and Van de Graaf 2012). The main driver of these punctuations is thought to be external shocks that tilt the otherwise stable balance of positive and negative feedbacks towards a new equilibrium. One example of such a shock could be a legal case that challenges the legitimacy of the environmental policy. A punctuation could also create opportunities for environmental policies; for example, the Fukushima disaster in Japan may have led to Germany’s policies to phase out nuclear energy (Wittneben 2012).


Both approaches have been applied in the analysis of environmental policy change (e.g. Daugbjerg 2003; Repetto 2006), although the applications have mostly concentrated on large programmes in particular policy areas, such as agriculture. Recent literature has argued that focusing exclusively on positive feedback or on the catalytic effect of external shocks is not very helpful for intentionally designing policies that can both create positive feedback and withstand sustained negative feedback and external shocks (Jordan and Matt 2014).


The complexity of environmental problems can also increase the risk of ‘policy under-reaction’ by decision-makers, since it is difficult for policymakers to accurately estimate risks (Maor 2014). To avoid risks from taking decisions with unwanted side effects, policymakers tend to delay decisive action as long as possible and, confronted with external shocks, choose symbolic action rather than effective policymaking (Howlett 2014). There are a number of suggestions for strengthening the importance of the environment within States to overcome such shortcomings (Kloepfer 1989; Calliess 2001; Eckersley 2005; Jänicke 2007); however, this has not happened so far: the importance of the environment is not institutionalized as a priority but competes with other goals of governments.


Against this background, research is increasingly turning to policy design (Howlett and Lejano 2013) and seeks to understand how policy design choices can create policy change—i.e. how steps of incremental policy change can, over time, build up to create transformational change. Policies that are ‘sticky’ (i.e. persistent) but not ‘stuck’ (i.e. unresponsive to changing conditions) and that create positive feedbacks are seen as a potential way to increase the effectiveness of environmental policies (Jordan and Matt 2014). The Paris Agreement on climate change and its ratcheting-up mechanism is a prominent example of this concept (Falkner 2016). The need for such a forward-looking approach to policy design can be seen in policy fields that are troubled with complexity, as is the case for most environmental problems (Levin et al. 2013). The design of international regimes heavily influences their effectiveness—even more importantly than the type of underlying problem. In other words: an easy problem is not solved if an international regime is poorly designed (Young 2011). Given the context dependency of policies and regimes, a careful diagnosis of the appropriateness of their design is essential (Young 2011).


Policy innovation can be regarded as a mix of invention (new or novel approaches), diffusion (transfer and adoption) and monitoring of their effects (outcomes, impacts and possibly disruption) (Jordan and Huitema 2014b). The literature on polycentric governance suggests that multiple innovative policies should be implemented as a form of quasi-experiment, with best practices emerging from the monitored effects. It has been argued that governance at the lowest possible level minimizes free-riding as a motivation, and that monitoring is easier in smaller entities, e.g. communities (Marshall 2009). However, on a global scale, polycentric governance could lead to free-riding by governments, for example in the absence of a global regime, governments could be tempted to avoid actions while benefiting from mitigation efforts by others (Ostrom 2010). However, the role of policy entrepreneurship, and the contribution of civil society, in motivating policy shifts should not be underestimated.


Policy innovation, however, is not necessarily the most effective pathway to policy packaging, as tried and true command and control and economic incentive policies may deliver most of the impact (Hildén, Jordan and Rayner 2014; Jordan and Huitema 2014a). Greater focus on policy coherence, successful implementation and compliance may prove that traditional policy approaches still work effectively. Innovative policies may bring new implementation and compliance challenges which existing institutions are not well equipped to handle.


Policy Theory and Practice 287


11


Page 1  |  Page 2  |  Page 3  |  Page 4  |  Page 5  |  Page 6  |  Page 7  |  Page 8  |  Page 9  |  Page 10  |  Page 11  |  Page 12  |  Page 13  |  Page 14  |  Page 15  |  Page 16  |  Page 17  |  Page 18  |  Page 19  |  Page 20  |  Page 21  |  Page 22  |  Page 23  |  Page 24  |  Page 25  |  Page 26  |  Page 27  |  Page 28  |  Page 29  |  Page 30  |  Page 31  |  Page 32  |  Page 33  |  Page 34  |  Page 35  |  Page 36  |  Page 37  |  Page 38  |  Page 39  |  Page 40  |  Page 41  |  Page 42  |  Page 43  |  Page 44  |  Page 45  |  Page 46  |  Page 47  |  Page 48  |  Page 49  |  Page 50  |  Page 51  |  Page 52  |  Page 53  |  Page 54  |  Page 55  |  Page 56  |  Page 57  |  Page 58  |  Page 59  |  Page 60  |  Page 61  |  Page 62  |  Page 63  |  Page 64  |  Page 65  |  Page 66  |  Page 67  |  Page 68  |  Page 69  |  Page 70  |  Page 71  |  Page 72  |  Page 73  |  Page 74  |  Page 75  |  Page 76  |  Page 77  |  Page 78  |  Page 79  |  Page 80  |  Page 81  |  Page 82  |  Page 83  |  Page 84  |  Page 85  |  Page 86  |  Page 87  |  Page 88  |  Page 89  |  Page 90  |  Page 91  |  Page 92  |  Page 93  |  Page 94  |  Page 95  |  Page 96  |  Page 97  |  Page 98  |  Page 99  |  Page 100  |  Page 101  |  Page 102  |  Page 103  |  Page 104  |  Page 105  |  Page 106  |  Page 107  |  Page 108  |  Page 109  |  Page 110  |  Page 111  |  Page 112  |  Page 113  |  Page 114  |  Page 115  |  Page 116  |  Page 117  |  Page 118  |  Page 119  |  Page 120  |  Page 121  |  Page 122  |  Page 123  |  Page 124  |  Page 125  |  Page 126  |  Page 127  |  Page 128  |  Page 129  |  Page 130  |  Page 131  |  Page 132  |  Page 133  |  Page 134  |  Page 135  |  Page 136  |  Page 137  |  Page 138  |  Page 139  |  Page 140  |  Page 141  |  Page 142  |  Page 143  |  Page 144  |  Page 145  |  Page 146  |  Page 147  |  Page 148  |  Page 149  |  Page 150  |  Page 151  |  Page 152  |  Page 153  |  Page 154  |  Page 155  |  Page 156  |  Page 157  |  Page 158  |  Page 159  |  Page 160  |  Page 161  |  Page 162  |  Page 163  |  Page 164  |  Page 165  |  Page 166  |  Page 167  |  Page 168  |  Page 169  |  Page 170  |  Page 171  |  Page 172  |  Page 173  |  Page 174  |  Page 175  |  Page 176  |  Page 177  |  Page 178  |  Page 179  |  Page 180  |  Page 181  |  Page 182  |  Page 183  |  Page 184  |  Page 185  |  Page 186  |  Page 187  |  Page 188  |  Page 189  |  Page 190  |  Page 191  |  Page 192  |  Page 193  |  Page 194  |  Page 195  |  Page 196  |  Page 197  |  Page 198  |  Page 199  |  Page 200  |  Page 201  |  Page 202  |  Page 203  |  Page 204  |  Page 205  |  Page 206  |  Page 207  |  Page 208  |  Page 209  |  Page 210  |  Page 211  |  Page 212  |  Page 213  |  Page 214  |  Page 215  |  Page 216  |  Page 217  |  Page 218  |  Page 219  |  Page 220  |  Page 221  |  Page 222  |  Page 223  |  Page 224  |  Page 225  |  Page 226  |  Page 227  |  Page 228  |  Page 229  |  Page 230  |  Page 231  |  Page 232  |  Page 233  |  Page 234  |  Page 235  |  Page 236  |  Page 237  |  Page 238  |  Page 239  |  Page 240  |  Page 241  |  Page 242  |  Page 243  |  Page 244  |  Page 245  |  Page 246  |  Page 247  |  Page 248  |  Page 249  |  Page 250  |  Page 251  |  Page 252  |  Page 253  |  Page 254  |  Page 255  |  Page 256  |  Page 257  |  Page 258  |  Page 259  |  Page 260  |  Page 261  |  Page 262  |  Page 263  |  Page 264  |  Page 265  |  Page 266  |  Page 267  |  Page 268  |  Page 269  |  Page 270  |  Page 271  |  Page 272  |  Page 273  |  Page 274  |  Page 275  |  Page 276  |  Page 277  |  Page 278  |  Page 279  |  Page 280  |  Page 281  |  Page 282  |  Page 283  |  Page 284  |  Page 285  |  Page 286  |  Page 287  |  Page 288  |  Page 289  |  Page 290  |  Page 291  |  Page 292  |  Page 293  |  Page 294  |  Page 295  |  Page 296  |  Page 297  |  Page 298  |  Page 299  |  Page 300  |  Page 301  |  Page 302  |  Page 303  |  Page 304  |  Page 305  |  Page 306  |  Page 307  |  Page 308  |  Page 309  |  Page 310  |  Page 311  |  Page 312  |  Page 313  |  Page 314  |  Page 315  |  Page 316  |  Page 317  |  Page 318  |  Page 319  |  Page 320  |  Page 321  |  Page 322  |  Page 323  |  Page 324  |  Page 325  |  Page 326  |  Page 327  |  Page 328  |  Page 329  |  Page 330  |  Page 331  |  Page 332  |  Page 333  |  Page 334  |  Page 335  |  Page 336  |  Page 337  |  Page 338  |  Page 339  |  Page 340  |  Page 341  |  Page 342  |  Page 343  |  Page 344  |  Page 345  |  Page 346  |  Page 347  |  Page 348  |  Page 349  |  Page 350  |  Page 351  |  Page 352  |  Page 353  |  Page 354  |  Page 355  |  Page 356  |  Page 357  |  Page 358  |  Page 359  |  Page 360  |  Page 361  |  Page 362  |  Page 363  |  Page 364  |  Page 365  |  Page 366  |  Page 367  |  Page 368  |  Page 369  |  Page 370  |  Page 371  |  Page 372  |  Page 373  |  Page 374  |  Page 375  |  Page 376  |  Page 377  |  Page 378  |  Page 379  |  Page 380  |  Page 381  |  Page 382  |  Page 383  |  Page 384  |  Page 385  |  Page 386  |  Page 387  |  Page 388  |  Page 389  |  Page 390  |  Page 391  |  Page 392  |  Page 393  |  Page 394  |  Page 395  |  Page 396  |  Page 397  |  Page 398  |  Page 399  |  Page 400  |  Page 401  |  Page 402  |  Page 403  |  Page 404  |  Page 405  |  Page 406  |  Page 407  |  Page 408  |  Page 409  |  Page 410  |  Page 411  |  Page 412  |  Page 413  |  Page 414  |  Page 415  |  Page 416  |  Page 417  |  Page 418  |  Page 419  |  Page 420  |  Page 421  |  Page 422  |  Page 423  |  Page 424  |  Page 425  |  Page 426  |  Page 427  |  Page 428  |  Page 429  |  Page 430  |  Page 431  |  Page 432  |  Page 433  |  Page 434  |  Page 435  |  Page 436  |  Page 437  |  Page 438  |  Page 439  |  Page 440  |  Page 441  |  Page 442  |  Page 443  |  Page 444  |  Page 445  |  Page 446  |  Page 447  |  Page 448  |  Page 449  |  Page 450  |  Page 451  |  Page 452  |  Page 453  |  Page 454  |  Page 455  |  Page 456  |  Page 457  |  Page 458  |  Page 459  |  Page 460  |  Page 461  |  Page 462  |  Page 463  |  Page 464  |  Page 465  |  Page 466  |  Page 467  |  Page 468  |  Page 469  |  Page 470  |  Page 471  |  Page 472  |  Page 473  |  Page 474  |  Page 475  |  Page 476  |  Page 477  |  Page 478  |  Page 479  |  Page 480  |  Page 481  |  Page 482  |  Page 483  |  Page 484  |  Page 485  |  Page 486  |  Page 487  |  Page 488  |  Page 489  |  Page 490  |  Page 491  |  Page 492  |  Page 493  |  Page 494  |  Page 495  |  Page 496  |  Page 497  |  Page 498  |  Page 499  |  Page 500  |  Page 501  |  Page 502  |  Page 503  |  Page 504  |  Page 505  |  Page 506  |  Page 507  |  Page 508  |  Page 509  |  Page 510  |  Page 511  |  Page 512  |  Page 513  |  Page 514  |  Page 515  |  Page 516  |  Page 517  |  Page 518  |  Page 519  |  Page 520  |  Page 521  |  Page 522  |  Page 523  |  Page 524  |  Page 525  |  Page 526  |  Page 527  |  Page 528  |  Page 529  |  Page 530  |  Page 531  |  Page 532  |  Page 533  |  Page 534  |  Page 535  |  Page 536  |  Page 537  |  Page 538  |  Page 539  |  Page 540  |  Page 541  |  Page 542  |  Page 543  |  Page 544  |  Page 545  |  Page 546  |  Page 547  |  Page 548  |  Page 549  |  Page 550  |  Page 551  |  Page 552  |  Page 553  |  Page 554  |  Page 555  |  Page 556  |  Page 557  |  Page 558  |  Page 559  |  Page 560  |  Page 561  |  Page 562  |  Page 563  |  Page 564  |  Page 565  |  Page 566  |  Page 567  |  Page 568  |  Page 569  |  Page 570  |  Page 571  |  Page 572  |  Page 573  |  Page 574  |  Page 575  |  Page 576  |  Page 577  |  Page 578  |  Page 579  |  Page 580  |  Page 581  |  Page 582  |  Page 583  |  Page 584  |  Page 585  |  Page 586  |  Page 587  |  Page 588  |  Page 589  |  Page 590  |  Page 591  |  Page 592  |  Page 593  |  Page 594  |  Page 595  |  Page 596  |  Page 597  |  Page 598  |  Page 599  |  Page 600  |  Page 601  |  Page 602  |  Page 603  |  Page 604  |  Page 605  |  Page 606  |  Page 607  |  Page 608  |  Page 609  |  Page 610  |  Page 611  |  Page 612  |  Page 613  |  Page 614  |  Page 615  |  Page 616  |  Page 617  |  Page 618  |  Page 619  |  Page 620  |  Page 621  |  Page 622  |  Page 623  |  Page 624  |  Page 625  |  Page 626  |  Page 627  |  Page 628  |  Page 629  |  Page 630  |  Page 631  |  Page 632  |  Page 633  |  Page 634  |  Page 635  |  Page 636  |  Page 637  |  Page 638  |  Page 639  |  Page 640  |  Page 641  |  Page 642  |  Page 643  |  Page 644  |  Page 645  |  Page 646  |  Page 647  |  Page 648  |  Page 649  |  Page 650  |  Page 651  |  Page 652  |  Page 653  |  Page 654  |  Page 655  |  Page 656  |  Page 657  |  Page 658  |  Page 659  |  Page 660  |  Page 661  |  Page 662  |  Page 663  |  Page 664  |  Page 665  |  Page 666  |  Page 667  |  Page 668  |  Page 669  |  Page 670  |  Page 671  |  Page 672  |  Page 673  |  Page 674  |  Page 675  |  Page 676  |  Page 677  |  Page 678  |  Page 679  |  Page 680  |  Page 681  |  Page 682  |  Page 683  |  Page 684  |  Page 685  |  Page 686  |  Page 687  |  Page 688  |  Page 689  |  Page 690  |  Page 691  |  Page 692  |  Page 693  |  Page 694  |  Page 695  |  Page 696  |  Page 697  |  Page 698  |  Page 699  |  Page 700  |  Page 701  |  Page 702  |  Page 703  |  Page 704  |  Page 705  |  Page 706  |  Page 707  |  Page 708  |  Page 709  |  Page 710  |  Page 711  |  Page 712  |  Page 713  |  Page 714  |  Page 715  |  Page 716  |  Page 717  |  Page 718  |  Page 719  |  Page 720  |  Page 721  |  Page 722  |  Page 723  |  Page 724  |  Page 725  |  Page 726  |  Page 727  |  Page 728  |  Page 729  |  Page 730  |  Page 731  |  Page 732  |  Page 733  |  Page 734  |  Page 735  |  Page 736  |  Page 737  |  Page 738  |  Page 739  |  Page 740  |  Page 741  |  Page 742  |  Page 743  |  Page 744
Produced with Yudu - www.yudu.com