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manufacturing and mining sectors are key to reducing emissions. Examples include cleaner brick kiln technology, piloted in Asia and Latin America (Maithel et al. 2012; Center for Human Rights and Environment 2015); cleaner technologies and approaches to reduce or eliminate mercury use in ASGM piloted in several countries (United States Environmental Protection Agency [US EPA] 2018a); and Perform-Achieve-Trade schemes for energy intensive industry in India (Kumar and Agarwala 2013; Bhandari and Shrimali 2018).


5.2.4 Residential and commercial


Around 3.1 billion people, about 43 per cent of the global population in 2014, depend on burning fuels such as wood, crop residue, dung, coal and kerosene to cook their food and heat and light their homes (World Health Organization [WHO] 2016a). These fuels are the dominant source of BC and OC emissions globally and a major source of primary


PM, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), CO and CO2 emissions (Hoesly et al. 2018). Globally, exposure to residential smoke is one of the largest environmental health risk factors (Cohen et al. 2017). Lack of access to clean household energy is most severe in low- and middle-income countries, but the use of polluting fuels takes place in high-income countries and in urban as well as rural areas. Women and children are the most exposed to household air pollution, and also bear the greatest burden of gathering or procuring the fuels (WHO 2016b). Improving access to cleaner stoves and fuels (including wood pellets, liquid petroleum gas, natural gas, and sources of electricity) has been identified as a global priority, and although progress is being made, many challenges remain (Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves 2014; WHO 2016a) (see Section 12.2.3).


The energy demands of the built environment (primarily the construction, heating, cooling, and lighting of residential and commercial buildings) account for a large fraction of GHG emissions in countries with developed economies and some cities in developing economies. Improving the energy efficiency of buildings and cities is necessary to meet global goals for GHG mitigation and to achieve co-benefits for air quality. These improvements require policy approaches such as building standards, labelling and rating systems, land-use planning, tax incentives, financing, voluntary commitments, awareness and education.


5.2.5 Waste management 5


While most developed countries have shifted towards cleaner and more efficient technologies for waste management, developing countries are still grappling with basic challenges in this area. Open dumping and burning of solid waste remain predominant in low-income countries and continues to be practised in many cities in lower-middle and upper-middle income countries. An estimated 2 billion people worldwide lack access to solid waste collection services, while 3 billion people lack access to adequate waste disposal facilities (UNEP and International Solid Waste Association 2015). Approximately 64 million people are directly affected by uncontrolled dumping and open burning at the world’s 50 largest dumpsites, 42 of which are within 2 km of settlements (Waste Atlas Partnership 2014).


Open waste burning emits CO2


, CH4


, NMVOC and PM, and


is a major source of POPs, including dioxins and furans, in many developing countries (UNEP 2014a; UNEP 2014b; UNEP 2015a; UNEP 2015b). In developed countries, the waste sector is also an important source of CH4


, metals and


POPs. The illicit export of discarded electrical and electronic equipment (ewaste) from industrialized to developing countries (Rucevska et al. 2015) leads to significant emissions of POPs as well as other semivolatile organic contaminants (e.g. other halogenated flame retardants) in the informal e-waste receiving and processing areas (Breivik et al. 2016).


5.2.6 Agricultural and forestry


A broad array of agricultural and livestock farming practices alter the nitrogen cycle and GHG emissions, and increase pollution by fertilizers and pesticides, promoting biodiversity loss and soil degradation (DeLonge, Miles and Carlisle 2016). Agriculture, forestry and other land uses contribute 25 per cent to global GHG emissions (Seto et al. 2014). In developed countries, agriculture forms about 10 per cent of national GHG inventories (European Environment Agency 2017; US EPA 2017), while in developing countries the contribution is much higher.


Meat and dairy production, distribution and consumption have large environmental impacts on scales ranging from local to global (Leip et al. 2015). Industrial meat production and livestock operations are significant sources of GHGs, NH3


, dust and bioaerosols (Cole and McCoskey 2013). GHG emissions from livestock farming increased by 51 per cent globally between 1961 and 2010, mostly due to a 117 per cent increase in developing countries, moderated by a 23 per cent decrease in the developed countries (Caro et al. 2014; Pagano et al. 2017). Livestock production is responsible for 9 per cent of total GHG emissions (Caro et al. 2014). The largest source of these emissions (74 per cent) are dairy and beef cattle. N2


O and CH4 emissions, which


emanate from manure left on pasture, manure management and fermentation, increased by 57 per cent globally in the same period. However, rotational livestock grazing and other pasture management techniques are available to decrease the production of GHGs by the very same cattle, and at the same time preserve biodiversity (Nordborg and Röös 2016).


Along with livestock farming, fertilizer use results in significant emissions of NH3


, accounting for about 75 per


cent of anthropogenic and about 60 per cent of total NH3 emissions globally (Ciais et al. 2013) and contributing to


regional PM formation and detrimental effects on terrestrial, freshwater


and marine ecosystems (Galloway et al. 2003).


Irrigation and fertilization practices for crops in general, as well as pasture management, can alter soil respiration rates, changing the amount of CO2


emitted by soils to the


atmosphere (UNEP 2017c). Pesticides used in agricultural applications are a major source of unregulated POPs into the environment and food chain, with various detrimental effects on health (see Section 4.3.4).


116 State of the Global Environment


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