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and sustainable”. It is clearly recognized that cities, especially those on coastlines, are where some of the most vulnerable places and infrastructure are located (World Bank 2013). Within the framework of the Global Action Programme (GAP) on Education for Sustainable Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) implements Climate Change Education (CCE) alongside Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) programmes (UNESCO 2014). CCE includes, among other issues, the science of climate change, social and human aspects, policy responses and sustainable lifestyles (UNESCO 2010). To ensure effectiveness of this policy, research shows that educational interventions are most successful when they focus on local, tangible and actionable aspects of sustainable development and climate change, especially those that can be addressed by individual behaviour (Anderson 2013).


The Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Programme is the first major climate change adaptation initiative in the Pacific region and is a partnership between several key regional and national agencies and communities in 14 Pacific island countries. It is coordinated by the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). An assessment of this programme calls for a more integrated approach to climate change, disasters and climate mitigation, and better management of information and data (Hay 2009). Policies related to climate-related migration are only just emerging. There are policy frameworks that have sought to integrate migration with border protection, livelihoods and social and human rights protection such as those developed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB 2012) and the Protection Agenda of the Nansen Initiative (2015), but implementation remains rare at the local level.


17.3.3 What is the transformative potential of the policy approaches discussed?


The policy approaches and case study presented (Box 17.1) reinforce the need for better identification of governance


for adaptation to address the complexities of the processes leading to and resulting from climate change impacts, and the underlying factors of vulnerability, and to build resilience and adaptive capacity. Governance of adaptation refers to the pattern that emerges from the processes of governing the social, political and administrative actors involved (Huitema et al. 2016). Successful adaptation requires consideration of effectiveness, efficiency, equity and legitimacy to ensure the sustainability of development pathways into an uncertain future (Adger, Arnell and Tompkins 2005).


A transformative approach towards adaptation to climate change is increasingly proposed as an approach to deal with the impacts of climate change and can potentially offer changes in the way current adaptation is governed and implemented towards being resilient and sustainable. It is an approach that has the potential to mediate complexity, uncertainty and rapid change. Its identified characteristics include adaptive management, particularly in allowing learning and self-organization; addressing scale to increase a governance ‘fit’ between social and ecological aspects; and a polycentric governance system allowing redundancy and diversity through participation and collaboration (Brunner et al. 2005; Folke 2006; Brunner and Lynch 2010; Djalante, Holley and Thomalla. 2011; Chaffin, Gosnell and Cosens 2014). The transformative potential is reflected through innovation, experimentation, vision and space for new actors. Learning allows for experimentation to take place, visions to be generated and innovations to flourish (Taylor 2017). Actions are taken based on the best available knowledge and allowing for learning from mistakes and innovation to take place. Climate change education also contributes to capacity-building for decision makers and empowers people to implement their own adaptation strategies – for example, by equipping them to understand complexity, perceive risks and take into account indigenous knowledge (Nakashima et al. 2012; Blum et al. 2013; Monroe et al. 2017; UNESCO 2017; UNESCO 2018). Overall, the learning by different stakeholders increases transformation capacity.


17


Box 17.1: Case study: ‘Living With Floods’ programme in Viet Nam


This case study provides an example of policy approaches towards achieving effective adaptation, despite vast complexities in setting targets for achieving policy effectiveness (i.e. social equity/human rights, community participation, economic variability, differing capacities, and multilevel policy fragmentation). The Vietnamese approach could be considered as transformative because flood risk management policy changed from control to ‘living with floods’. However, the effectiveness of the approach is limited in the face of increasing hazard risks in the Mekong Delta.


The ‘Living with Floods’ programme is part of the National Strategy for Natural Disaster Prevention, Response and Mitigation to 2020. It aims to accommodate rather than control floods through the use of semi-dykes that allow occasional and controlled floods, which in turn lead to better soil management. Residential clusters are protected from flooding by a full- and semi-dyke system. There are permanent residences and access to basic public services and facilities, such as schools and health clinics (Central Committee for Flood and Storm Control [CCFSC] 2012). Up to 150,000 households are involved with the programme. These households are chosen directly by local authorities in the Mekong Delta. Poor households are eligible for a long-term, low-interest government loan to fund the acquisition of their new home, while wealthier households can purchase housing plots directly. A weakness of the process is a lack of transparency with regard to the selection of households and the allocation of funds. The sustainability of the funding from the national government is uncertain. There is no community participation or consultation in the selection of relocation sites (Chun 2015).


Overall, though the programme moved communities out of harm’s way, it has resulted in an increase in the economic vulnerability of most households due to loss of livelihoods. Economic and solidarity networks have been dislocated in the process, and most households report decreased income, as well as difficulties in repaying their debts (Chun 2015; Entzinger and Scholten 2016). Such detrimental outcomes are largely the result of lack of integration of environmental with other policy objectives, such as long-term economic sustainability. As a result, though the programme contains many positive aspects and intentions, it has led to decreased community resilience.


Systemic Policy Approaches for Cross-cutting Issues 431


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