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2019; Sikiti da Silva 2019; Vidal 2019). Armed conflicts have heavy human costs (United Nations Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict 2013). It also results in environmental degradation (Mitri et al. 2014; Gleick 2019).


Competition for land and water between cities and agriculture results in the loss of cropland (Bagan and Yamagata 2014; Ahmad et al. 2016). It has been proposed that investing in improvements in agricultural water use efficiency would free up sufficient water for urban use (Flörke, Schneider and Mcdonald 2018).


During the last decade, the acquisition of long-term rights over large areas of land in developing countries for agriculture has received considerable attention (Cotula, Vermeulen and Keeley 2009; De Schutter 2012; International Institute for Environment and Development [IIED] 2013). These large-scale acquisitions raise important social, economic and environmental concerns. “Land grabbing”, as it is often called, has been seen to displace poor, vulnerable populations and damage the


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environment, which in turn worsens poverty and food insecurity. To better understand the impacts of land grabbing, and develop appropriate policy and regulatory responses, an approach that considers both sustainable development and human rights is needed (Djiré, Keita and Diawara 2013; Grant and Das 2015; Gilbert 2017; Cotula 2019).


Deforestation and forest loss have increased in tropical forests that contain some of the highest levels of biodiversity and some of the most forest-dependent communities in the world. In May 2019 the Amazon rainforest lost 739 km2


in


31 days, the equivalent of two football pitches every minute; in view of the almost 75,000 fires reported between January and August 2019, the highest number since 2010, the situation can only get worse (British Broadcasting Corporation 2019; Butler 2019; WWF 2019a).


Poor land use management also increases the risk of zoonotic diseases such as COVID-19. Expanding infrastructure, intensified agriculture, resource extraction, deforestation and forest fragmentation all reduce the quality of our wild


spaces and bring humans closer to wildlife. This wildlife can be the source of diseases that cause great health and economic harm. Two million people in low and medium income countries perish annually due to endemic zoonotic diseases, and prior to COVID-19, zoonotic diseases led to economic damage of USD 100 billion over the past two decades. The more humans encroach on wild spaces and interact with wildlife, the greater the risk of zoonotic diseases becomes (UNEP 2020).


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