752 W. Sharkey et al.


norm) and willingness to intervene, and that informal guardianship may be augmented by leveraging the sense of empowerment and ownership of local residents over protected area resources (Viollaz et al., 2022). In practice, protected area lawenforcement processes can


draw on both formal and informal processes. For example, in Balule Nature Reserve in South Africa, the BlackMambas, a state-recognized anti-poaching unit, conduct formal du- ties and are also thought to play informal roles as handlers by drawing on social ties and relations to dissuade individuals in the community from engaging in rule-breaking behaviour (Kahler & Rinkus, 2021). An actor may have a formal role (such as membership of the Black Mambas) and contribute informally by monitoring behaviour and promoting compli- ance when they are off duty (Viollaz et al., 2022).


Applying the framework to case study examples


In this section, we present three real-world case studies to illustrate the differentways in which local residents can con- tribute to protected area law enforcement. We apply the framework to each case study to illustrate its use in analysing and comparing the characteristics of different approaches for involving local residents in protected area law enforce- ment. We focus on the structural components of these case studies as illustrations for the framework. None of the case studies have been formally evaluated in terms of their contribution to conservation and well-being outcomes, and so we do not focus on this aspect.


Community wardens in the Cardamom Mountains landscape, Cambodia


Across five sites in Central Cardamom Mountains National Park (CentralKravanh) and SouthernCardamomMountains National Park (Southern Kravanh) in southwestern Cambodia, Fauna & Flora manages a community warden patrol programme in partnership with the Forestry Administration, a government agency. Implemented over 20 years ago, this programme seeks to protect the Siamese crocodile Crocodylus siamensis and its habitat: freshwater wetlands and slow-flowing rivers. Protected under national and international law (CITES Appendix I), the Siamese crocodile is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List as a result of habitat loss, hunting and col- lection for commercial crocodile farms during the second half of the 20th century (Bezuijen, 2012;Sam et al., 2015). Selected by village and commune chiefs, community


wardens living in close proximity to each site are employed by Fauna & Flora on a part-time basis to undertake regular patrols, collect Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool data, report rule-breaking behaviour to enforcement authorities and raise awareness of regulations amongst local residents (Simpson et al., 2006). As outlined in their terms of


reference, community wardens patrol in crocodile sanctuar- ies established through consultation and agreement between Fauna & Flora, the Forestry Administration and local resi- dents. Sanctuaries are not legally designated but governed by local bylaws that align with de jure protected area rules. These bylaws prohibit electric and dynamite fishing, and the use of nets, multiple hooks and long casting rods. Habitat destruction through activities such as tree felling and water pumping is forbidden, as is the hunting of wildlife with snares and traps. Fauna & Flora provides community wardens with field


clothing, as well as kayaks and motorbikes for patrol pur- poses. Community wardens also receive remuneration, training and equipment such as GPS devices, cameras and smart mobile devices to collect Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool data during patrols. Wardens do not have the authority to make an arrest but can issue written or verbal warnings to perpetrators and remove illegal equip- ment such as snares and fishing nets. Community wardens in the Cardamom Mountains land-


scape predominantly contribute to the detection element of the enforcement system. Participating formally and receiv- ing a monthly salary, community wardens assist the Ministry of Environment in achieving its objectives and, in doing so, receive different types of external support from Fauna & Flora and the Forestry Administration.


The Prey Lang Community Network, Cambodia


In the early 2000s, people living in the vicinity of Prey Lang, a forest ecosystem in the Central Plains landscape of Cambodia, started advocating for the protection of their ancestral forests from illegal logging and agricultural ex- pansion (Prey Lang Community Network, 2021). This led to the formation of the Prey Lang Community Network, an autonomous community monitoring network com- posed of local residents (Turreira-García et al., 2018). In recent years, members of thisNetwork havemade and


implemented decisions on patrolling across Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary, a designated protected area. A locally elected steering committee organizes meetings and ar- ranges independent and voluntary patrols to monitor and report rule-breaking behaviour (Prey Lang Community Network, 2022). During patrols, members of the Network apply sanctions to offenders who fail to present a valid log- ging permit (Prey Lang Community Network, 2022). Equipment used to illegally log timber is seized and social pressure is applied by educating perpetrators on the impacts of their actions (Brofeldt et al., 2018). Offenders are requested to sign a contract stating they will no longer engage in illegal activities, and confiscated items are given to the Ministry of Environment (Prey Lang Community Network, 2022).


Oryx, 2024, 58(6), 746–758 © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605323001758


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