798 S. Verschueren et al.


FIG. 4 Species-specific estimates of site use (ψ), probability of detection (p) and covariate associations (β) for the influence of Euclidean distances to Gam and Nyae Nyae Conservancy and number of prey species with body mass . 1 kg. The symbols show the species-specific values, with the black horizontal lines showing the difference from the community estimate. Species are categorized by family (Canidae, Felidae, Herpestidae, Hyaenidae, Mustelidae, Viverridae) and feeding strategy (carnivore, omnivore; Table 1).


and carnivores in adjacent areas such as Ondjou Conservancy presumably have lower survival because of an- thropogenic threats. On the other hand, omnivorous spe- cies, such as the black-backed jackal, may be better suited to persist in human-impacted landscapes because of their opportunistic and generalist foraging strategy (Kaunda & Skinner, 2003). It is also possible that Ondjou Conservancy could act as an ecological trap, particularly for larger carnivores that may be more vulnerable to an- thropogenic threats (van der Meer et al., 2015). During our field surveys we learned of several cases of human–wildlife conflict resulting from livestock depredation and predator persecution. The African wild dog, brown hyaena, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and leopard are competitively inferior to the lion Panthera leo and spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta, which occur widely in Nyae Nyae Conservancy. Consequ- ently, these subordinate species could be drawn to areas that appear suitable for survival and reproduction but could be harmful because of human persecution. This hy- pothesis aligned with our observations of two resident packs of African wild dogs in the western part of the study grid. In contrast, our observations closer to Nyae Nyae Conservancy indicated sightings of single African wild dog individuals, possibly dispersers.


Anthropogenic activity had a strong influence on carni-


vore occurrence, with the majority of species avoiding the eastern part of the study near Gam. This area was character- ized by abundant livestock and multiple homesteads and there were frequent camera-trap detections of people and vehicles, although free-range livestock farming, hunting of wild meat and predator persecution were probably wide- spread across the entire study area. Carnivores generally avoid areas of intense human use, although several species may display fine-scale behavioural adaptions to optimize re- source use in human-impacted landscapes (Oriol-Cotterill et al., 2015). Unprotected livestock is often readily available and easy to catch (Puls et al., 2021), and carnivores may occasionally supplement their diets with livestock, particu- larly when wild prey populations are low (Khorozyan et al., 2015). Improving livestock husbandry practices will be a critical first step for promoting human–wildlife coexistence (Ogada et al., 2003), and restoring viable prey populations will be vital in the long term (Wolf & Ripple, 2016). Biodiversity is the cornerstone of healthy and productive


ecosystems (Hooper et al., 2012). Mammalian carnivores play a vital role in this by providing important ecological services such as prey regulation, trophic cascades, food provi- sioning and disease control (Ripple et al., 2014).Conservancies


Oryx, 2024, 58(6), 793–801 © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605324000024


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