812 B. Sharma et al.
experienced by settlements that exist within protected areas but beyond jurisdictional oversight, as is the case for the settlements in the Khata Corridor. Settlements in closer proximity to the National Park ex-
perience both advantages and disadvantages (Budhathoki, 2004; Lamichhane et al., 2019). The National Park brings tourism opportunities but imposes restrictions on forest use (Adams &Hutton, 2007). In Bardiya and other national parks in Nepal, participation by local people in community- based tourism has been praised as a beneficial offset to re- strictions on forest use (Stræde & Helles, 2000; Dhungana et al., 2016; Bhattarai et al., 2017; Ghimire, 2022; Woli, 2022). The village of Thakurdwara highlights these dynam- ics. It lies close to the National Park, and residents of this village are strictly prohibited from using National Park re- sources, enforced through regular patrolling and well- maintained fencing, except for during a single visit to forests each year (during winter) for 3 days. These restrictions are adhered to given that the people of Thakurdwara have di- verse opportunities to generate income through tourism, reducing their dependency on forest resources and subse- quently increasing their support for the conservation of na- tional forests. However, other settlements do not experience the same level of benefit. Neulapur is within the buffer zone, an area designated as a transitional space surrounding a pro- tected area to promote natural resource conservation through local participation, and as such receives some gov- ernment subsidies but does not receive benefits from tour- ism and has only moderate law enforcement (no patrolling but some maintenance of fences), together leading to a greater need for and utilization of forest resources. Dalla is bordered by both buffer zone forest and national forest, and has successful homestay operations for tourists, and conse- quently, despite only moderate lawenforcement of forest re- strictions, forest visitation is relatively low. Pattharbhuji, farthest from the National Park, does not receivemany eco- nomic benefits from tourism and has little enforcement of restrictions on forest use (no patrolling and no maintenance of fences), together leading to daily reliance on restricted forest resources. The daily use of forest resources in Pattharbhuji could be attributed to several factors. It is pos- sible that the community forest, an area of a national forest for the community to use, manage and conserve, is of inad- equate size to meet community needs or that a lack of law enforcement facilitates the use of restricted forest areas even if the assigned community forest is large enough to meet local needs. Alternatively, it is possible that high conflict with tigers in this settlement and perceived risk of attack have resulted in residents degrading forest habitats to drive tigers from the region. However, there is little support for this latter hypothesis. Despite Pattharbhuji having a high incidence of tiger records, being the most isolated and forest-bound settlement and experiencing more tiger attacks on livestock than the other settlements, there is general
community support for tiger conservation amongst its resi- dents (Sharma & Neupane, 2023). Therefore, enforcement of restrictions on forest access and use alone probably cannot mitigate conflict risk if there is a lack of economic opportu- nity to overcome the reliance on forests (Colchester et al., 2006).Within an environmental justice framework it is evi- dent that uniform solutions to complex issues can result in unfair outcomes for communities that are already bearing costs. These communities are highly dependent on the forest for their livelihoods, relying on its resources for sustenance, shelter and income generation. Even with the application of strict enforcement measures it is likely that people from such communities would still visit the forest to fulfil their live- lihood needs. Amore inclusive approach is needed to reduce forest visitation and conflict risk (Carter & Linnell, 2016). Designation of the Khata Corridor as a governmental
protected region has mostly been successful in terms of bio- diversity conservation (Wegge et al., 2018). However, un- equal access to benefits associated with the National Park is ultimately related to forest dependency and increased conflict risk. Providing opportunities that align with the principles of environmental justice amongst settlements is likely to minimize conflict risk (Boillat et al., 2018). It is im- portant to ensure that all communities, regardless of their geographical location or socio-economic status, have equal opportunities to benefit from conservation and experience reduced risk. Such benefits could be economic aid from tourism, community-focused infrastructure development such as road access to markets, medical facilities such as health posts, and schools and livelihood improvement in- itiatives (Bookbinder et al., 1998; Coria & Calfucura, 2012; Das & Chatterjee, 2015; Stronza et al., 2019). This approach would provide communities with infrastructure support and knowledge to prevent and respond to conflict risk or tiger attacks. Furthermore, integrating the entire Khata Corridor into the buffer zone of Bardiya National Park would align with the principles of environmental justice (Bhatt et al., 2023). Extending the responsibilities of the National Park through the Khata Corridor and up to the international border would facilitate transboundary wildlife movement and ensure that all communities, regardless of location, receive equal environmental benefits and have similar costs. An immediate short-term solution tomitigate conflict risk could involve implementing community- focused education programmes to increase local knowledge of human–tiger interactions, emphasizing that tigers are highly unlikely to enter human habitations except for those that are close to the forest boundary. Instead of relying solely on physical barriers such as fences to prevent tigers from entering settlements and people from entering forests, a commonconflictmitigationactionintiger-inhabited areas, it could be more effective in the Khata Corridor to focus on raising awareness of tiger behaviour and knowledge of the relative risks associated with community activities.
Oryx, 2024, 58(6), 806–814 © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605323001849
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