348 J. H. Hanson et al.
FIG. 2 Reasons given by 260 questionnaire respondents for their attitudes towards proposed blue sheep translocation.
The mean attitude score towards snow leopards was
3.57 ± SD 0.97 and the mean attitude score towards snow leopard conservation was 3.98 ± SD 0.39. A number of re- spondent attributes were also considered at the household level. The mean Sustainable Livelihoods Index score was 0.53 ± SD 0.12, mean number of livestock owned per house- hold was 5.43 ± SD 9.04, and mean self-reported livestock losses to snow leopards in the previous 12 months were 0.26 ± SD 0.60 per household (range 0–9).
Discussion
The ecological viability of translocating a species into an area is often the sole consideration of a study, with the socio-economic impacts regularly overlooked (Armstrong & Seddon, 2008). This is true of earlier research on the po- tential translocation of blue sheep to the Park (Aryal et al., 2013), which considered only the ecological viability of the proposal. Yet participation and consultation have been identified as critical factors in the success of human–carni- vore coexistence projects (Treves et al., 2009), and we there- fore aimed to explore local attitudes towards the proposed translocation. Questionnaire data from our social viability assessment showed moderate levels of support for the reintroduction of blue sheep to Sagarmatha National Park, with 62.7% ‘agreeing’ or ‘completely agreeing’ with the idea. However, the more nuanced and critical reflections appar- ent in the triangulation interviews suggest that these data may overlook some of the local residents’ reservations about the proposal. Data from the interviews also affirmed the importance of probing depth of knowledge, rather than just breadth of knowledge, in questionnaire research for conservation (White et al., 2005).
Explaining local attitudes
The significance of gender in explaining attitudes in this study has not been universally matched elsewhere in atti- tudes towards conservation translocations, although it has
proved significant in explaining attitudes towards snow leo- pards (Suryawanshi et al., 2014; Alexander et al., 2015). Although women were less positive towards reintroduced European bison in Lithuania (Balčiauskas & Kazlauskas, 2014), men were less positive towards the idea of wolf rein- troductions in North America and Europe than women (Williams et al., 2002). However, gender was ranked as the fifth and fourth most important predictor in these studies, respectively. The difference in our study may be the developing-world context, where women are often more in- volved in, and dependent on, resource extraction, including agropastoralism, than men and are therefore more likely to display negative attitudes towards perceived threats to such activities (Alexander et al., 2015). Total livestock owned per household was the other sig-
nificant explanatory factor in the regression model, and had a negative relationship with attitudes to blue sheep translocation. Although the justification for the proposed translocation of blue sheep to the Park has been to reduce livestock depredation by increasing wild prey availability for snow leopards (Aryal et al., 2013; Ferretti et al., 2014; Lovari & Mishra, 2016), these findings suggest that it is those people most likely to benefit from the proposal who may be amongst thosemost opposed. Fears over competition for forage, as well as crop and livestock losses,may drive this perspective, as found elsewhere with black-footed ferrets Mustela nigripes and praire dogs in the USA and blue sheep in China (Reading & Kellert, 1993; Alexander et al., 2015).
Motivations behind local attitudes
The motivations for attitudes to the proposed translocation were more nuanced and critical than the attitudes them- selves, with more respondents giving negative, or mixed positive and negative reasons, as is common in other con- texts (De Young, 1996; Richardson & Loomis, 2009). The triangulation interviews provided additional context and ra- tionale for local perspectives. Of those who had negative or mixed attitudes and motivations, potential crop damagewas the most common concern, as it represents a clear threat to local livelihoods (Chambers & Conway, 1992; Scoones, 1998). This is consistent with research on blue sheep in China (Alexander et al., 2015) and with prairie dogs in the USA (Reading & Kellert, 1993).
Conclusion
This study has indicated there are mixed levels of support for blue sheep translocation. However, the low explanatory power of the model limits the extrapolations and inferences that can be made. Future studies should consider a wider number of potential explanatory variables in regression modelling. In addition, concern over whether blue sheep
Oryx, 2020, 54(3), 344–350 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605318000157
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