422 G. Khanal et al.
leopards, c. 10% of the global population (WWF Nepal, 2009). Studies of the snow leopard in Nepal commenced with those of Schaller (1977), Jackson & Ahlborn (1984), and Jackson (1996) in Shey Phoksundo National Park. Recent studies have focused on the western and central Himalayas (Thapa, 2006; Wegge et al., 2012; Ale et al., 2007, 2014; Devkota et al., 2017), but a large part of potential habitat remains poorly studied, in particular Api Nampa Conservation Area in the western Himalayas. Reliable estimates of species abundance are fundamental
for conservation and management. Recently developed non-invasive techniques, including camera trapping and DNA analysis, are among the best methods to study large elusive carnivores such as the snow leopard (Jackson et al., 2006; Janecka et al., 2008), but are costly. Camera trapping can be logistically challenging when information on pres- ence/absence of the study species is not available. In these circumstances, information on spatial distribution can be useful for defining conservation priorities. The presence and spatial distribution of a species can be assessed based on indirect evidence of species occurrence (e.g. pugmarks, scrapes; Jackson & Hunter, 1996). The goal of this studywas to determine snowleopard pres-
ence and to estimate the abundance of its wild prey in Api Nampa Conservation Area, and thus to estimate the number of snow leopards that this area could potentially support.We also examined the influence of ecological and anthropogenic variables on encounter rate of snow leopard signs.
Study area
The 1,903 km2 Api Nampa Conservation Area, established in 2010, lies in the far-western Himalayas of Nepal (Fig. 1) at altitudes of 518–7,132 m. Monthly mean maximum tem- perature is c. 24°C in summer and in winter the minimum
temperature can drop to c.−30°C. Precipitation above 3,500 m is mainly in the form of snow, which starts to melt in March. Topography is characterized by undulating terrain
and river valleys. Vegetation above 3,600mis largely dry al- pine steppe characterized by meadows rich in sedges and graminoids such as Stipa, Carex and Kobresia. On drier sites and rugged slopes vegetation is dominated by dry grasses and shrubs such as Caragana brevifolia and Lonicera spinosa. Below 3,600 m mixed broadleaved and conifer forest species include blue pine Pinus wallichiana, Himalayan fir Abies spectabilis,birch Betula utilis, burans Rhododendron arboreum,oak Quercus spp. and juniper Juniperus indica. The fauna includes the Himalayan marmot Marmota himalayana, woolly hare Lepus oiostolus,musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, Himalayan goral Naemorhedus goral and bharal (blue sheep) Pseudois nayaur. Bharal is the most common ungulate and a food source for the snow leop- ard, golden jackal Canis aureus and grey wolf Canis lupus. Within the suitable habitat for the snow leopard
(generally above 3,500 m), local communities are mainly agro-pastoralist. Green peas, potato and barley are the main agricultural crops. The dominant source of income for local communities is animal husbandry and collection of non-timber forest products, including a valuable medicinal product that is a complex of the parasitic fungus Cordyceps sinensis and the ghostmoth caterpillar Thitarodes spp. (Pant et al., 2017). Livestock species include sheep, goats, yaks, cattle–yak hybrids (dzo, jhopas), and horses. Migratory herders employ a seasonal grazing pattern in which theymove large herds of livestock to higher elevations in late April, rotate them among pastures, and then herd them to lower elevations in mid September.
Methods FIG. 1 The location of Api Nampa Conservation Area in Nepal.
Snow leopard sign survey We adopted the Snow Leopard Information Management System (Jackson&Hunter, 1996) to determine snow leopard presence and to estimate the relative encounter rate of snow leopard signs. Although this system was not developed spe- cifically for estimating snow leopard abundance, it is never- theless a useful method for conducting presence/absence surveys as it is straightforward for field assistants with little formal education to use, has minimal impact on the species being studied, and is inexpensive (Ale et al., 2014). Based on anecdotal information of snow leopard occurrence we selected six study blocks, Tinkar, Nampa, Ghusa, Khandeshowri, Sitaula and Rapla, with areas of 31–50 km2. Within these blocks we located ridgelines, narrow valleys and human trails (used and unused) where snow leopards were most likely to leave signs of territory marking and/or communication (Jackson, 1996), to serve as transects. No routes were surveyed more than once. We recorded the location and sign type (scrape, pugmark, scent marking, scats) with a GPS, and the elevation at the beginning and end of the transect. To quantify potential human
Oryx, 2020, 54(3), 421–428 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605318000145
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