Snow leopards in Nepal 427 Our method for surveying the bharal population does
not account for imperfect detection and therefore probably underestimated the density of this key prey species, thus also affecting the inference from the predator–prey ratio. The double observer method, which allows the detection prob- ability to be estimated, for correcting the counts, and also allows estimation of the precision of the estimates, could have produced more accurate estimates of the bharal popu- lation (Suryawanshi et al., 2012). We counted bharal from transects that often ran along ridgelines. Bharal are wary of disturbance and retreat when they detect humans on ridgelines, even far away. We estimated bharal density by dividing the number of animals seen by the area effectively sampled, which was based on the sum of areas that we con- sidered to have been scanned. This method is subjective and may have overestimated the total sampling area, leading to an underestimation of density. Overall, the potential for underestimation of total prey availability suggests that 6–9 snow leopards is a conservative estimate of the number Api Nampa Conservation Area could support. Large mammalian carnivores are threatened globally
(Ripple et al., 2014; Wolf & Ripple, 2017), and knowledge of the factors influencing distribution is critical for their con- servation. Studying an elusive carnivore such as the snow leopard in remote and rugged terrain is challenging, and using methods such as camera trapping to survey all areas where the species could exist can be costly and logistically difficult. Sign surveys therefore continue to provide evidence for informing conservation decisions and for establishing a baseline for future monitoring. Standardizing the survey protocols (e.g. search effort, observer bias, selection of sampling sites, study season and duration), accounting for imperfect detection in study design and modelling (MacKenzie et al., 2002) and training local herders as citizen scientists and involving them in field surveys could improve the reliability of data from such surveys. For Api Nampa Conservation Area, we suggest that reliable baseline infor- mation on snow leopard distribution and abundance be es- tablished from standardized sign surveys, preferably combined with camera trapping or genetic studies. Our field observations and interactions with local com-
munities revealed that human disturbance and habitat degradation associated with extraction of non-timber forest products, livestock grazing, and poaching are major threats to snow leopards in Api Nampa Conservation Area. Conservation awareness campaigns and regulation of nat- ural resource extraction in collaboration with local commu- nities could be crucial in reducing threats to this landscape in general, and to the snow leopard in particular.
Acknowledgements We thank the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation for providing the research permit for this study; The Rufford Foundation, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo and Cleveland Zoological Society for funding the fieldwork; IDEA Wild
Inc., USA, for providing the research equipment; Man Bahadur Khadka,Maheshwar Dhakal, Sher Singh Thagunna, Koustubh Sharma, Hem Raj Acharya, Ashok Kumar Ram, Saroj Panthi, Gokarna Jung Thapa, Pemba Sherpa, Dipendra Nath and Indra Nagari for their sup- port; RachelMoseley for help in improving the text; and the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.
Author contributions Study design: GK, PW; data collection and analysis: GK; writing: GK, PW, LPP, BPD, RR.
Conflicts of interest None.
Ethical standards This research abided by the Oryx Code of Conduct.
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Oryx, 2020, 54(3), 421–428 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605318000145
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