such as upma, usal, and sundal are not deep-fried; others, such as bhel-puri and pani-puri, contain a combination of deep-fried and raw ingredients. Nonvegetarian snacks such as kababs and chicken or fish tikkas may be baked, grilled, or broiled. Roasted or deep-fried papads, appalams, and vadagums, made from seasonal vegetables, rice, or lentil flour, are popular as appetizers or snacks and meal accompaniment. Snacks, also known as tiffin in southern India, may be served in the afternoon with tea or coffee or as appetizers during weekend parties.
Betel leaves and fennel seeds are used as mouth fresheners at the end of the meal. Cooking oils include
seed oils such as peanut, mustard, sesame; hydrogenated vegetable oils; and clarified butter (ghee). Common food preparation techniques include:
