Grains, such as paddy (unmilled rice), maize, wheat, millet, and barley, make up a majority of the


Nepalese diet due to their predominance in the agricultural economy (9). These grains are made into an assortment of foods such as puddings, breads, pancakes, and more. Typically, a grain will be soaked, roasted, and pulverized, the order of which is dependent on the end product (10). Popular grain foods include dhido (corn or millet flour pudding), chiura (beaten rice that has been soaked, drained, and roasted), syabaji (beaten puffed rice that has been roasted in sand), golfuki (breakfast puffed rice that is lightly roasted), poko (fermented rice), satoo (roasted maize and soybean), khir (rice pudding), puwa (ceremonial food of rice with sugar and spices), and chatamari (rice flour pancakes). Grains are also fermented to produce liquor such as jand, fermented finger millet, and raski, a product that resembles whiskey (9).


Many vegetables are a part of the Nepalese diet. Rayo (mustard leaves), cauliflower leaves, carrots,


and bamboo shoots are all examples of vegetables that are fermented with lactic acid. Leafy greens that are fermented are referred to as gundruk, and they contain 0.8% to 1.0% acid. An assortment of different species of bamboo shoots, tama or mesu, are also used in fermentation. Some varieties of bamboo shoots are choya bans, dhungre bans, bhalu bans, karati bans, and mal bans. Bamboo shoots are used in a popular dish called aloo-tama-bodi (potato, mesu, and white beans). Other vegetables such as cucumber, or kakro, are pickled by a process that involves first sun-drying the vegetable and then soaking it in salt, spices, and fenugreek oil for 4 to 5 days. The name achar is the general term used for pickled vegetables (11).


Vegetables are also combined with plant or animal protein sources. Masyaura is a nugget of soaked


and ground lentils and shreds of vegetables such as pidalus that have been dried in the sun (12). Nepali curries contain leafy greens, eggplant, and potato. The use of meat is less frequent but may include mutton, buffalo, chicken, or pork (13,14). Curry is reminiscent of its neighboring country India, but the Nepalese curry uses milder spices and more tomatoes, as opposed to the cream and milk of the northern border of India (15).


Native fruits of Nepal include apples, pears, apricots, peaches, plums, persimmons, plums, grapes,


walnuts, pecans, chestnuts, guava, citrus fruits, kumquat, and pomegranate (12). Additionally, mangoes and amala are eaten fresh or dried. Dried mango flesh is seasoned with salt and turmeric and then sun- dried. Amala is a native Nepalese fruit high in vitamin C; it is sometimes ground into a powder for medicinal purposes. It is often eaten as achar with dal-baht to help with digestion, especially among the elderly (16).


Dried meat (sukuti) is preserved by hanging slices to be dried by air, sun, or smoke or heat from a


fireplace. The final product contains less than 10% moisture. Often, the sukuti is roasted again and broken into chips that may be added to tomato chutney seasoned with a variety of spices (10). In addition to sukuti and curries, meat is most commonly eaten in momos (Tibetan-influenced dumplings) and thakpa (noodle soup). Momos can be vegetarian, but versions with ground meat contain spices such as garlic, ginger, turmeric, and cumin and have an outer flour wrapping. Thakpa is a seasoned rice noodle soup with carrots, bell pepper, and cilantro (11).


The Hindu caste system has a large influence on the eating standards of the Nepalese. Specific foods


are thought appropriate for individual castes (9). For example, in areas where rice is not a staple crop, wealthy families make it a point to serve rice at each meal (8). Wealthier, higher caste families usually include the option of both vegetables and lentils at meals, while less fortunate families typically only serve one or the other. A study provided through the United States Agency for International Development reported that locally abundant leafy vegetables high in vitamin A such as garlic pear, amaranth, and stinging nettles were seen as inferior foods meant for only low castes (9).


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