stalks of the maize and squash spread around so as to suppress weeds and support the root system. The ancient practices of hunting and fishing were also utilized since there was ample access to forests and bodies of water. There was diverse fauna ranging from prairies to dense woods, and a climate that had four distinct seasons.


 Southeastern Native American: These indigenous people lived in the area from the Atlantic Ocean west to the Mississippi River, south of the Ohio River, and north of the Gulf of Mexico—an area typically thought of as the American Old South. A geographic area somewhat warmer than the other areas, the terrain included mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, deep woods, and open expanses of plains. Squash, maize, and beans were common staples. Common traditions were incorporated into southern traditions still present in modern southern kitchens. Maize was ground into meal or limed with salts to produce hominy and was also used in grits and liquors. Cornbread, corn cakes, hushpuppies, boiled beans and peas, and smoked meat over hickory coals are all modern traditions associated with southern cooking that originate with Southeastern Native Americans. Likewise, Southeastern Native American cooking methods included the use of animal brains, livers, and other organs, as well as the rendering of fats for cooking and frying, more traditions maintained in present-day southern cuisine.


 Northwestern Native Americans: The northwest region included the western coast of the modern continental United States and stretched east past the plains to the Mississippi River. The area encompassed a diverse terrain of coastal beaches, deserts, mountains, and grassy and open plains. In contrast to their eastern counterparts, the Native Americans along the western coast had milder winters and thus a more favorable climate for year-round hunting and gathering. Among the culinary inventions include the grinding of acorns into flour. In addition to mushrooms and berries, the Native Americans of this region were successful in both fishing and hunting, as wildlife ranged from salmon and duck to deer and rabbit.


Religious beliefs, practices, and customs varied greatly between the regions, as did the weather and geography. Collectively, most of these cultures were more oral-based than writing-based, although elaborate artwork such as paintings and pottery often served as a method of record keeping. Oral traditions were maintained with significant devotion, and though subtle differences were as numerous the tribes themselves, some overarching consistencies are noteworthy (18).


By the time Europeans arrived, the Native American tribes possessed coherent religious systems which


included cosmologies, explanations of creation, intertwined legal doctrine and associated social orders, all of which were transmitted orally from one generation to the next (18). A holistic view of the material and spiritual worlds, one where both coexist in one realm, included an extended kinship between plants, animals, humans, and spirits. Souls were believed to be immortal, and one’s actions and relationships in life were thought to continue from one plane of existence to the other. Most native peoples worshiped one Great Spirit or an all-powerful creative force associated with either or both genders depending on the context. Numerous lesser supernatural entities represent good and evil within the belief systems and could be called on for aid in health, war, peace, and agriculture (18). Religion was traditionally administered by way of a shaman, who often doubled as a healer, historian, and teacher (18).


Historically, there was little distinction between their food system and religion. The natural forces of


seasons and weather cycles were seen to be inextricably linked with the supernatural. Feasts and religious worship were coordinated with the seasons and the hunting, planting, and harvest schedules.


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