18 Analytical Instrumentation


DISCUSSION ON NEW TRIBOLOGY TESTS AND UPDATED INSTRUMENTATION FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY


INTRODUCTION Tribology is a vital study in the petroleum industry. It concerns the macro and molecular- scale interactions between two surfaces in motion.[1] It is an especially important area of study since nearly every mechanical product experiences frictional eff ects. For example, a car’s engine could experience irreparable damage over time due to infrequent oil changes or incorrect oil rating use. An entire range of petroleum products is specifi cally devoted to lubrication, from the thinnest motor oil to the thickest grease. Tribology is not just important in lubricants; for example, airplane fuel with insuffi cient lubricity decreases engine component lifespan due to unnecessary friction.[2] Therefore, it is imperative to determine the tribological eff ects of petroleum products before scale-up and mass production occurs.


Tribology Background T


ribology has been studied and utilized for millennia. The Ancient Greeks recognized the friction-reducing effects of olive oil while the Ancient Egyptians used animal fat as a lubricant for chariot wheels.[4] The mathematician Archimedes studied mechanics and observed what would eventually become the laws of friction.[4] However, the greatest advancements in tribology occurred within the past 300 years due to the Industrial Revolution and its aftermath. The development of advanced machinery and components such as shafts and bearings created a high demand for friction mitigation.[4] During the 20th Century, Dr. H. Peter Jost researched tribological studies, being commissioned by the British government in 1964 to make a report on the state of lubrication research, education, and industry demand.[5] By 1966, his group determined that approximately £515 million ($628 million) could be saved annually by implementing widespread tribological improvements throughout industries.[6] Coined the “Jost Report”, it marked the beginning of modern tribology, inspiring other researchers to produce their own advancements. Their reports discussed a range of subjects, including saving between 11-22% of energy consumption when looking into tribology; such reports accounted for transportation, industrial machinery, power generation, and energy-intensive sectors such as mining and paper production.[7] These numbers are very signifi cant even as rough estimates since they translate to billions of dollars saved. Dr. Jost concluded based on the reports that industrial nations could save 1.0-1.4% of their gross national product if they improved tribological processes and invested in research and development (R&D) at a fraction of the savings rate.[7] Tribology has a profound effect on mechanical effi ciency and, in turn, has widespread economic and environmental implications.


In a 2011 analysis of global energy consumption via friction losses, researchers concluded that the average car uses ⅓ of its energy just to overcome friction.[7] In addition, researchers noted that implementing state-of-the-art tribology advancements in vehicles could cut frictional energy losses by 61% over the next 15-25 years.[7] This corresponds to an annual €576 billion ($608 billion) saved and 960 million tonnes of CO2 unreleased. [7] These numbers show how large of an impact tribology has on energy effi ciency. Tribological R&D funding could lead to major advancements in climate change mediation, conservation, and bountiful economic returns.


Standardized tribological testing equipment ensures petroleum products maintain lubricity under various conditions. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has produced several test methods specifi cally designed for tribological units. The following examples listed below are ASTM-conforming devices produced by Koehler Instrument Company: the High


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Figure 1. Suncor Energy Lubricants Centre, a lubricant manufacturing plant. [3]


Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR), the Automated BOCLE Tester, and the Benchtop Four Ball Wear and EP Tester. Their respective ASTM methods test a wide variety of petroleum products, such as jet fuels and lubricating greases. For the petroleum industry, these methods are paramount for ensuring quality lubricants.


K93405/K93495 High Frequency Reciprocating Rig


The High Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) falls under two ASTM test methods: the D6079 method for “Evaluating Lubricity of Diesel Fuels by the High-Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR)”[8] and the D7688 method for “Evaluating Lubricity of Diesel Fuels by the High-Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) by Visual Observation”.[9] An example of the HFRR is shown below.


The test methods cover a wide range of diesel products, including 1D, 2D, their low sulfur derivatives,[8] and biodiesel blends.[9] The methods specifi cally examine the wear scar of the fuel tested. A crucial industry standard for fuels and lubricants, the wear scar test determines relative lubricity by moving a ball bearing along a metal disk at a high frequency. The friction between the two objects results in an abrasion scar (wear scar) on the ball, but the disk is submerged in test fuel. A fuel with higher lubricity will lessen the effects of friction, thereby decreasing scar size.[10] The U.S. standard for commercial diesel fuel is a maximum diameter of 520 microns, with the Chicago-based Engine Manufacturers Association standard being 460 microns. [10] These test methods have signifi cant implications on diesel engines, which consequently affects worldwide commerce. Engine components, such as injectors and injection pumps, experience the lubricating properties of the fuel, creating insuffi cient lubricity that correlates to a decreased lifespan.[8] Therefore, this test is important for any company that produces fuels or fuel additives.


The K93405/K93495 unit is specifi cally designed to perform the wear scar test. It requires the assembly of several components, all cleaned before testing. The ball and disk are both placed into their respective holders with tweezers and screwed fi nger-tight into place. The temperature probe is placed into the hole in the disk holder along with the test fuel, and a 200 g weight hangs from the support cord. The USB-linked program allows for the input of a desired temperature, set at 60℃ in accordance with ASTM D6079.[8] The humidity can also be controlled through the program with the use of a control cabinet. Testing commences after all inputs are complete.


Figure 2. K93495 High Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR)


The ball is lowered into the fuel holder until it makes contact with the disk; at that point, it starts rubbing against the disk at 50 Hz for 75 minutes. The ball, which is still in the holder, is then removed from the device, washed with cleaning solvent, and dried with a lint-free tissue. The ball-holder combination is placed under a 100x microscope, and the major/minor axes are


Figure 3. Wear Scar Examples


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