demanding process and hence leading to high GHG emissions per kg of product. Mitigation options can be explored by replacing compound feed


components, by changing sourcing of feed materials or by changing cultivation inputs and crop yields. A protocol, developed in cooperation with the compound feed


industry, describes when to use primary data and how to account for them. Exploring mitigation options by replacing feed materials requires


caution. Not all feed materials are available in infinite amounts. The production volume of co-products from food and beverage industry is defined by the demand for the main product and not by the demand for the co-product. Changing compound feed composition also might change the amino acid composition and addition of synthetic amino acids is required. This only plays a role for monogastrics. Combining the use of the FeedPrint tool with a feed optimisation program helps to define the right amount of additives.


The FeedPrint tool is available for free via www.wageningenur.nl/en/show/FeedPrint-Calculate-CO2-per- kilogram-meat-melk-or-eggs.htm


such as Salmonella and E. coli, and development and regulation of the immune system. The neonatal pig is exposed to a huge variety of environmental


and maternal microbes shortly after birth, which quickly establish in the previously sterile gastrointestinal tract. At first, aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria become the predominant groups in the gastrointestinal tract. Lactic acid bacteria are one of the first colonizers of the intestine of the newborn animal or infant. These pioneer colonizers change the gut environment by reducing molecular oxygen potential, and thus allowing other anaerobes to colonize the gut. Lactobacilli and streptococci become dominant bacteria by the end of the first week of life, and are maintained throughout the suckling period. Around weaning, with the sudden removal from the sow and immediate introduction of solid food, Bacteroides and Firmicutes become the major bacterial groups. These groups include obligate anaerobes, as well as obligate and facultative aerobes. The resulting microbiota reflects the microbial communities associated with the birth and rearing environments, as well as maternal contact. While the adult microbial ecosystem is relatively stable, temporal stability and species richness of the gut microbial community are low during development.


Development of immunological structures in the young pig starts


PROMOTING MUCOSAL IMMUNITY: DEVELOPING NEW EFFICACIOUS PROBIOTICS Imke Mulder and Denise Kelly Rowett Institute, Gut Immunology Group, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB21 9SB UK.


The mammalian gastrointestinal tract contains an immense number of microorganisms. In general, intestinal bacteria establish a mutualistic relationship with the host. While the gut provides a nutrient-rich niche for the microbiota, the bacteria provide the host with metabolic functions, trophic functions, protection against pathogenic organisms


with the expansion of innate immunity from conception onwards. At birth, the piglet also receives passive immunity through colostrum and sow’s milk, which includes antibodies, cytokines and immune cells. Passive immunity is removed around weaning, and this is the time when the adaptive immune system starts to expand. Adaptive immunity reaches its full maturity around puberty, when the architecture of the intestine is comparable to that of a mature animal. While innate programming controls development of the


mucosal immune system to a certain extent, a successful mature immune system depends on appropriate microbial colonization and succession in these early stages of life. Immune homeostasis is believed to establish during this critical developmental window, when innate and passive immunity provide the major protection against


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FEED COMPOUNDER JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2014 PAGE 59


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