vi UK Focus A CLOSER LOOK AT GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION


Since 1983, Enviro Technology Services (ET) have been providing clients with the measurement technology that underpins national air quality monitoring networks and enables scientists to conduct cutting-edge research into greenhouse gas emissions and fl uxes. In this article, ET’s Managing Director, Duncan Mounsor discusses the linkages and associations between greenhouse gases and air pollution, and why a more holistic approach to measurements is important.


In a great many cases, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions are inextricably linked.


Cut down on fossil fuel combustion and emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2


will fall, along with the direct emissions of trace gases such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx


) and sulphur dioxide (SO2 particulate matter and black carbon (BC). Whilst the combustion of any type of fossil fuel will always result in CO2 emissions, the


amount and type of air pollution created will depend on the type, source and quality of the fuel being burnt. Natural gas being relatively clean, with coal and heavy fuel oil being particularly dirty.


And as agreed at COP26, whilst many nations have accelerated their plans to shift away from coal during this decade, some of the most populous and largest coal producing nations have pushed this back as far as 2070, meaning billions of tonnes of CO2


emitted unless massive strides can be made in carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technologies and the implementation of them.


Heavy fuel oil (HFO), or ‘bunker fuel’ has primarily been used to fuel the engines of global shipping, and whilst the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) now legislates on ship exhaust emissions, forcing a switch to cleaner, lower sulphur content fuel oil (and in some cases the fi tting of pollution abatement technology), worldwide shipping represents one of the largest, if not the largest, anthropogenic sources of SO2


emissions. And let’s not forget SO2 those with less stringent air pollution legislation and regulation.


Unabated emissions from coal and fuel oil combustion also leads to PM and BC pollution, with black carbon signifi cantly changing the albedo where it deposits in the north and south poles, contributing to radiative forcing and global warming. We all know that despite the small downward blip in 2020 caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, CO2


emissions are higher than they have ever been - approximately 35 billion tonnes per year, with the 2020 global average concentration of CO2 being 412.5 parts per million (ppm), more than one and half times what it was before the industrial revolution.


CO2 persists in the atmosphere for between 300-1000 years, all the while trapping heat and warming the planet. Whilst not the only (or most damaging) greenhouse gas, it is by far the most abundant and is responsible for almost 75% of the total. It is the greenhouse gas that all others are measured against (CO2


e) with the ‘e’ standing for ‘equivalent’. As the primary and most abundant greenhouse gas, it is ascribed a Direct Global Warming Potential (DGWP) of 1. Methane (CH4 global emissions of CH4


) is the next biggest greenhouse gas in terms of emissions (17% of the total). The most recent estimates suggest annual of some 570 million tonnes (CO2


e), but it is between 28-36 times more damaging than CO2


DGWP some 300 times more damaging than CO2 are on the increase with some 3 million tonnes (CO2


O) or laughing gas (6% of the total). However, it’s no joke that this ‘forgotten’ greenhouse gas has a in its ability to trap heat, and it persists in the atmosphere for around 114 years. N2


e) emitted annually. By far the largest source of N2 considered to be a major factor in the formation of PM2.5 in terms of its DGWP. Methane persists in the atmosphere for around 12 years. Approximately 40% of CH4 emissions are from natural sources (i.e. wetlands),


but 60% come from anthropogenic sources, the largest of which being agriculture which is thought contributes to over 25% of the total. Coming in in 3rd place is nitrous oxide (N2


O emissions O comes from soil gas emissions caused by


a complex set of nitrogen compound reactions and microbial activity as a direct consequence of excessive application of ammonia fertiliser and intensive agriculture. Ammonia (NH3


) itself, through a series of atmospheric nitrogen cycle reactions and the formation of ammonium nitrate, is now particulate pollution, perhaps the most dangerous modern-day pollutant of the lot.


With 78% of our atmosphere consisting of nitrogen, NOx is always going to be a by-product of fossil fuel combustion where ‘air’ is used for the oxygen required for combustion. Whilst great strides have been taken with ‘low-NOx


) creeping up, and in many locations seeing annual NO2 ’ and ‘clean-burn’ engine technology, coupled


with the catalytic converters fi tted to our petrol-powered cars, the massive push to diesel vehicles in the 2000s has been partly responsible for levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2


limit values being exceeded as a consequence.


And whilst the high temperature diesel particulate fi lters (DPFs) fi tted to exhaust systems have done a great job in reducing PM10 particulate matter emissions from exhaust pipes, an unintentional and underestimated consequence of these heated devices, is their ability


to oxidise NO to NO2 And NOx and NO2


ozone (O3 ). In summary, our atmosphere is a dynamic, life-giving (and life-protecting) ‘chemistry set’ of cyclic chemical reactions, with greenhouse gases and air pollution being linked in more ways than are immediately obvious.


Whether given the moniker ‘greenhouse gas’ or ‘air pollutant,’ it is fundamentally important that we continue to measure these gases and particles as accurately and precisely as we can and expand our measurement networks to include ‘new’ compounds of interest as their signifi cance and importance comes to light. As Lord Kelvin once famously said; ‘to measure is to know’ and I’d like to expand on this and conclude by saying ‘to measure better is to know better’. More information online: ilmt.co/PL/1D3E


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Fifi (Credit: University of Reading) 56981pr@reply-direct.com Could llama antibodies provide a global resource for Covid-19 treatment?


“These are among the most effective SARS-CoV-2 neutralising agents we have ever tested at PHE. We believe the unique structure and strength of the nanobodies contribute to their signifi cant potential for both the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 and look forward to working collaboratively to progress this work into clinical studies.” Miles Carroll


Research led by scientists at the Rosalind Franklin Institute is leading to the possible development of a nasal spray to protect against Covid-19 using a type of tiny antibody generated by llamas and camels that binds tightly to the virus. They found that short chains of the molecules, which can be produced in large quantities in the laboratory, could offer an alternative to the use of human antibodies taken from patients who have recovered from Covid-19 and which need to be injected into the recipient. “Nanobodies have a number of advantages over human antibodies,” said Professor Ray Owens, head of protein production at the Rosalind Franklin Institute and lead author of the research. “They are cheaper to produce and can be delivered directly to the airways through a nebuliser or nasal spray, so can be self-administered at home rather than needing an injection. This could have benefi ts in terms of ease of use by patients but it also gets the treatment directly to the site of infection in the respiratory tract.”


After researchers at the University of Reading raised antibodies in a llama called Fifi , a small blood sample was collected from which they were able to purify four nanobodies capable of binding to the Covid-19 virus. The nanobodies were then combined together into chains of three to increase their ability to bind to the virus and then produced in cells in the laboratory. Fifi was reported as having no ill-effects such as sickness during the procedure. The team found three nanobody chains were able to neutralise both the original variants of the Covid-19 virus and the Alpha variant that was fi rst identifi ed in Kent, UK. A fourth nanobody chain was able to neutralise the Beta variant fi rst identifi ed in South Africa.


“Because we can see every atom of the nanobody bound to the spike, we understand what makes these agents so special,” said Professor James Naismith, Director of the Rosalind Franklin Institute, who helped lead the research. “While vaccines have proven extraordinarily successful, not everyone responds to vaccination and immunity can wane in individuals at different times.” “Having medications that can treat the virus is still going to be very important, particularly as not all of the world is being vaccinated at the same speed and there remains a risk of new variants capable of bypassing vaccine immunity emerging.” If successful and approved, nanobodies could provide an important treatment around the world, being easier to produce than human antibodies and which don’t need to be stored in cold storage facilities, added Professor Naismith.


IET JANUARY / FEBRUARY 2022


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For More Info, email: 55893pr@reply-direct.com contributing to yet another pollutant that has long been known to be dangerous to human health. along with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) - from natural and anthropogenic emissions - along with warm temperatures and sunlight, lead to yet another signifi cant and dangerous air pollutant, and PM2.5 will continue to be ) as well as air pollution from (PM) )


from coal combustion and the use of abundant, cheap and often high sulphur content coal used in power stations in developing (and some ‘developed’) countries, and


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