224 H. N. K. Sackey et al. Generally, savannah systems support large numbers
of grazing herbivores such as ungulates (Robinson & Bennett, 2004). This is evident in the nearby Mole National Park, and Nazinga Game Ranch in Burkina Faso, both of which support large numbers of ungulates (Brashares et al., 2001; Bouché et al., 2016), providing insight into the natural species composition of the landscape under low levels of disturbance. The fact that we recorded low numbers of ungulates traded in local bushmeat markets may therefore be an indication that the savannah landscapes within our study site (and outside these protected areas), have been depleted of wild ungulates. Hunting is likely to be a major cause of this depletion.
FIG. 6 Composition of carcasses traded (a) over long distances (n = 698) and (b) locally (n = 9,008). The local trade data are drawn from survey records of carcasses traded by market retailers in Fumbisi and Sandema (where this type of trade was recorded). The long-distance trade data are drawn from survey records of carcasses purchased by wholesalers in Fumbisi and Chiana (this type of trade was not recorded in Sandema).
(McNamara et al., 2016). However, in our study rodents and ungulates comprised only 14% of the total carcass numbers, although ungulates still comprised the bulk of the biomass. The most important explanation for the differences in
bushmeat species composition and trade volumes between the northern markets we surveyed and those in southern Ghana is probably the ecology of the ecosystems the markets are drawing from. For example, some species, such as the lagomorphs, helmeted guinea fowl and African buffalo, are native to savannah zones and would be expected to be found in northern markets. These ecological differences may also manifest in other ways. For example, the forest– farmland mosaic of the humid south provides a favour- able habitat for small-bodied, generalist ungulates, such as royal antelope Neotragus pygmaeus and Maxwell’s duiker Philantomba maxwellii. Evidence suggests these species are better able to persist in these landscapes, even when hunting levels are high, and they dominate the ungulate trade in the south (Cowlishaw et al., 2005). In contrast, the relatively low number of large ungulates observed in northern markets during our study suggests that in the more open savannah landscape of the north they have been overhunted.
This is evidenced by the high prices paid for ungulates and their almost exclusive trade onwards to the larger and wealthier southern markets where preferred bushmeat spe- cies can command high prices (McNamara et al., 2016). The combination of high prices and national trade networks is indicative of a high level of consumer demand, and likely creates strong incentives for the hunting of and trade in un- gulates compared to less valuable species. However, another explanation for the low number of ungulates recorded could lie in the historical management of trypanosomiasis in the region. In a failed attempt to tackle this disease, wild ungu- late populations in northern Ghana were culled under the tsetse fly control programme in the 1930s. This led to drastic declines in ungulate populations (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 2008; Aalangdong, 2010). Even after the programme was termi- nated c. 25 years later in the late 1950s, populations of wild ungulates in the region continued to fall, mainly because of overhunting, agricultural expansion and widespread bush burning (Aalangdong, 2010). It is possible that this legacy of ungulate declines may in part explain the continued low numbers of ungulates being traded in local markets. The greater incidence of ungulates in Chiana compared
to the other two markets could be a result of the proximity of Nazinga Game Ranch to the north. Poaching by hunters from both Burkina Faso and Ghana has been reported with- in this game ranch and its buffer zones (Bouché et al., 2016; Hema et al., 2017). Protected areas are often the only places in a landscape where large ungulates persist and so can be important sources of bushmeat for communities living nearby (Rentsch & Damon, 2013; Hema et al., 2017). It seems likely that large game species sold at Chiana were hunted illegally from the Nazinga Game Ranch and/or in its buffer zones.
Fluctuations in quantities of bushmeat traded
Fluctuations in the quantities of bushmeat in markets are often linked to factors such as season, behaviour of the hunted species and the seasonal nature of hunting activities (Allebone-Webb et al., 2011; Santos-Fita et al., 2012). Our findings indicate greater bushmeat offtake in the dry season
Oryx, 2023, 57(2), 216–227 © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605322000096
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