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18 JOHN HODDINOTT


3. Changes to crop varieties and production methods: Changes in the types of crops that are grown or changes in production processes may make agricultural work either more or less physically intensive. For example, mechanization will reduce the physical demands of agricultural labor, whereas crops that require greater manual weeding will increase it. They will also change exposure to pesticides, zoonoses, and work-related accidents.


4. Changes to the use of time: Where changes increase the returns to time spent in agriculture, households may increase the amount of labor they devote to agricul- tural production. If this labor does not come from outside the household and if it does not come from reduced leisure, then some other household activity will be affected. Households might reduce time spent on other income-generating activities, make greater use of child labor, or reduce time spent on the produc- tion of health or nutrition.


5. Changes to savings: Where changes in agricultural production result in higher incomes, individuals and households may choose to save some of these higher incomes in the form of assets that improve health.


6. Changes in intrahousehold resource allocation: Changes in agricultural production may result in changes in the allocation of resources within the household. If this change results in women earning greater income, it may affect how households spend money, how food is allocated, and what types of assets are accumulated.


It is not always clear whether a change in agricultural production will improve


or worsen health and nutrition. Several factors are at play. First, how large are the income effects of this change? Are these gross or net (accounting for input costs) income changes? How does income derived from other, nonagricultural income sources change? How strong are the links between income changes and the dimen- sion of health being considered, as mediated through changes in consumption of goods that affect health status? Does higher income cause households to purchase more food or foods of improved quality? Do households spend these higher incomes on goods that have no effect, or even a negative effect, on health and nutrition? Second, how do these changes affect pathways through which agricultural produc-


tion affects health directly? Are household members more exposed to zoonoses or to poisons such as those found in pesticides? Is more time spent in agriculture and less in the production of health or nutrition? Does the intensity of agricultural labor increase or decrease? To what extent does this offset or magnify the beneficial effects that these changes may have on household income?


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