142 RUTH MEINZEN-DICK, JULIA BEHRMAN, PURNIMA MENON, AND AGNES QUISUMBING


and child feeding practices—so that husbands would refrain from appropriating the produce or proceeds of women’s gardens. To be sustainable, HFP programs must generate income over the long run. This


may require diversifying income sources—such as through small livestock—and improving links to markets. In Bangladesh, one NGO introduced new vegetable technologies, and then helped establish marketing channels in Dhaka for the produce. Another focused on homestead milk production, hiring female livestock workers and modifying bicycles so women could use them to collect milk. Moving the focus of the dairy value chain from the market to the homestead helped increase women’s participation, and linked the homestead to the market.


Recommendations Taking gender roles into account can help HFP programs improve health and nutrition. The following are key strategies:


• Encourage diversified gardens that include high-value crops and small livestock in order to increase dietary diversity, provide sources of additional income, and enable women to accumulate assets.


• Explicitly address nutrition education and behavior change and communication in HFP programs.


• Identify gender-specific constraints on participation. • Foster income generation and better links to markets.


Conclusions and Policy Implications There is substantial evidence confirming the impact on health and nutritional outcomes of strengthening the position of women, both in terms of control of resources and agricultural productivity, and in terms of relative bargaining power within the household. However, research is needed to fully understand the linkages between alternative agricultural development strategies on health and nutrition. Just as gender relations are culture and context specific, the appropriate agricultural development strategy will vary both across and within countries. As agricultural productivity increases and surplus food is marketed, the distinc-


tion between food and cash crops at the household level will tend to erode. Two areas are likely to be of concern: (1) at the national or aggregate level, the balance between food and cash crops, as biofuels (for example) and food crops compete for


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