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138 RUTH MEINZEN-DICK, JULIA BEHRMAN, PURNIMA MENON, AND AGNES QUISUMBING


bottlenecks.¹ Enhancing women’s control over production, income, and assets will make a significant contribution toward improving the nutrition and health impacts of agricultural development strategies that link smallholder farmers with markets.


Recommendations The potential gender disparities of programs linking smallholders to markets need to be directly addressed to realize their full benefits for improved health and nutrition.


• Include women producers in contracts and group membership, and make pay- ments directly to women.


• In commercializing food crops or expanding cash crops, ensure that control does not shift from women to men, compromising household food security.


• Integrate health and safety concerns with the introduction of new technologies and markets; ensure that both women and men are trained to minimize exposure to agrochemicals and ensure compliance with biosafety requirements.


Large-Scale Agriculture The large-farm model is substantially different from family farming: ownership, management, and labor are often distinct roles; and production may be vertically integrated with processing, marketing, and export logistics. While research interest in plantations has recently increased, there has been limited research on either the nutrition impacts or the gender implications of large-scale agriculture (Behrman, Meinzen-Dick, and Quisumbing 2011). This chapter identifies two primary pathways through which large-scale agri-


culture influences nutrition: (1) by increasing the income of agricultural workers; and (2) by affecting the level of control that women exercise over household income. Health and nutrition outcomes can also be affected by working conditions, health- care, childcare, other facilities, and environmental impacts. Large-scale agriculture thus offers a range of opportunities for gender-equitable policies that reinforce health and nutrition. Women’s employment in large-scale farms depends in part on the type of crop and in part on other factors: the degree of mechanization, types of labor (formal or


1 For nutrition-focused analyses of value chains, see Corinna Hawkes and Marie Ruel, Value Chains for Nutrition, 2020 Conference Brief 4 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2011).


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