ADDRESSING THE LINKS AMONG AGRICULTURE, MALARIA, AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA 131


• Deforestation: While deforestation can reduce the breeding habitats of mosqui- toes that breed in shaded water, changes in environmental and climatic conditions in the deforested region can also promote the survival of other species, leading to prolonged seasons of malaria transmission.


• Wetlands: The cultivation of valley bottoms across East Africa as a result of population growth and demand for food has changed the local ecology. These wetlands were covered with natural papyrus, which limits the breeding of the Anopheles gambiae mosquito because of the denseness of the vegetation and the natural oil layer. The elimination of the papyrus and the reclamation of the swamps have led to an increase in temperatures, which promotes the breeding and survival of mosquitoes and increases malaria transmission (WHO 2008).


• Crop cover: Thickets formed by crop cover could be favorable environments for mosquito breeding, although to date there is little documented evidence. It may be possible for mosquitoes to breed in leaf axils (for example, of pineapples, bananas, cocoyams, and maize), tree holes, and bamboo stumps. It is known that maize pollen provides nutrition for larval carrier mosquitoes.


FIGURE 1 Conceptual framework for the impact of malaria on agriculture


Malaria in the agricultural household sector


Absenteeism and deaths of workers


Family members’ time diverted to caregiving


Loss of farming knowledge


Loss of savings and household and farm assets


Less land under cultivation


Less labor-intensive crops


Less crop variety


Less livestock production


Decline in income from wage labor, off-farm activities, and remittances


Food insecurity


Decline in farm outputs and income


Source: Negin 2004, with authors’ modifications.


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