1 the state of science in south africa
I N T R O D U C T I O N
occurred in the late 1950s and early 1960s Exacerbation of weakness through inter-
– the banning of the African National nal dysfunction
Congress (ANC)
3
in 1960; Prime Minister The ideology of apartheid also had major
Verwoerd’s decision to leave the Common-
negative effects on the state of South Af-
wealth in 1961; the Sharpeville massacre
4
rican science itself. On the one hand, it led
in 1960; Nelson Mandela’s incarceration in
to increasing polarisation within the white
the same year; and subsequent United
academic community at the historically
Nations arms embargoes commencing in
white universities, and, on the other, to the
1963. These were soon followed by com-
creation of the historically black universi-
prehensive cultural sanctions (enacted
ties (HBUs) or so-called ’bush colleges’ (see
for the most part in the 1970s and 1980s),
below). This gave rise to huge inequalities
which included severing academic links
within the higher education system, with
and contacts with South African schol-
very little or no contact between white
ars and scientists. South African scientists
and black academics. As to the former,
could not for the most part attend interna-
the relations between Afrikaans- and Eng-
tional conferences and meetings, visits by
lish-speaking scholars, or between more
foreign scholars to South Africa dwindled,
and scholarly exchanges of most kinds
conservative and more liberal academ-
became negligible. International scientific
ics, within both universities and science
collaboration became nearly impossible,
councils, became ideologised and pola-
as increasing numbers of South African so-
rised. A significant number of scientists and
cieties and professional associations were
academics sided with the government and
banned from being members of interna-
supported institutions such as the Broeder-
tional bodies (such as the United Nations
bond (a secret society of government sup-
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
porters which exerted a major influence in
sation (UNESCO), the International Council
all spheres of society and government) and
for Science (ICSU) and many others).
the Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap
en Kuns (an exclusively Afrikaans Academy
The South African government, through
of Science and the Arts).
its censorship laws, further contributed to
academic isolation by banning books by Some scholars in fields such as education,
authors (mostly Marxist and neo-Marxist) anthropology, history and sociology not
that it saw as a threat to the civil order. The only publicly supported the apartheid ide-
pariah status that was assigned to the gov- ology, but provided scientific and academic
ernment spilled over to its citizens and also justifications for it. A majority of the coun-
its scientists. try’s academics, on the other hand, dissoci-
3 The ANC is the party of Nelson Mandela and the governing party of South Africa. It was formed in 1912 and is the oldest political
organisation in the country.
4 A confrontation between South African police and black protestors that occurred in the township of Sharpeville, south of Johannesburg
on 21 March 1960, which led to the killing of 69 people.
42
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