The science of animal nutrition strongly influenced the choice of ingredients and process equipment, and mills were consolidated to reduce labour overheads and increase tonnes per shift. Automation was also introduced to manage overheads and maintain quality at higher tonnages as the pelleting process was integrated into the factory’s recipe controls. The global food chain in this era relied on reporting and audits


to maintain trust and feed safety. Assurance schemes continued to promote accountability for feed production and traceability, through every step of livestock feed production. The 1980s to the early 2000s witnessed the closure of many of the smaller localised feed mills, however, this was due in part to the rising cost of transportation and the infrastructure costs associated with limited annual volumes. These mill closures saw upwards of two million tonnes of production capacity lost in the UK, but this period also saw the construction of many new feed mills built to higher standards with an annual output capacity of 100,000 to 200,000 tonnes. They were also strategically constructed adjacent to the UK’s principal road transportation arteries. From the 1990s to the present day, developments continued to be


made with Compactors, Expanders, Long Term Conditioners and Meal Conditioners, to achieve the necessary improvements in both feed safety and nutritional performance. Meal temperature requirements have risen considerably over the last 20 years from 50 degrees Celsius to 90 degrees Celsius, depending on species-specific diets. These advances in technology and animal nutrition have driven a massive demand for the production of a wider range of livestock diets. Advancements in computing power allowed more frequent


changes of recipes, improved machine controls to reduce manual intervention, and subsequently improved feed mill efficiencies and the quality and consistency of diets. The invention of the world wide web then heralded the fourth


industrial revolution. The internet meant connectivity and the transmission of precise information around the world. This helped create smarter sensors to interpret data for timely analysis. Data sharing became conceptually easier, meaning one sensor could provide data to multiple systems simultaneously. It enabled automated reporting into ERPs from process controls, providing real-time billing and stock management. This meant works orders, production orders and BOM formulations imported into process controls reduced data entry costs and unwanted production. With the good inevitably came the bad. Cybersecurity has


become a growing source of concern, due to an ever-increasing demand for data to support feed safety and production traceability. Gas supply disruptions are now causing alarming hikes in energy costs which are in turn disrupting grain supplies and causing dramatic increases in raw material costs. Another global concern is the impact of climate change on economies and the production capacity of countries. Net Zero goals


PAGE 36 JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2023 FEED COMPOUNDER


are using carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as a standard measure of climate impact and factories are looking for ways to understand their costs, and how to reduce them. The rising cost of energy and the demand for reduced carbon dioxide generation resulting from livestock feed manufacturing will facilitate much greater reliance on process control systems to ensure that livestock feeds meet the demands for feed safety and environmental compliance. Animal science continues to drive developments in mechanical


equipment, which requires precision. Emergent ideas around entities like machine learning, data analytics, the internet of things and digital twins, make the possibilities for animal feed production endless. We should consider that the next 25 years will witness the


construction of numerous new feed mills in the UK to replace many of the current inefficient older-style feed mills that have already undergone several remodels over the past 50 years. Global milling businesses can now monitor factories anywhere


in the world, and outsourced system integrators can provide remote support, replacing dedicated engineering teams. Local factories are being developed to meet global standards for local supply. Integration with computerised maintenance management provides predictive maintenance to improve reliability and reduce overheads further. Will additive ingredient suppliers also integrate custom dosing systems into their processes? That is the million-dollar question. Is it possible that livestock feeding will turn almost full circle


and see a return to non-pelleted, concentrated feeds? Whatever happens, a need for traceability and accountability for feed production will remain.


Promtek would like to acknowledge Nigel Hillyer for the professional industry insights that were incorporated into this article. Inspiration and ideas were also drawn from the following sources: ‘Review of the feed industry from a historical perspective and implications for its future’ by Karl A. Dawson, Peter Ferket, Aidan J. Donnelly et al, Journal of Applied Animal Nutrition, January 2016 ‘The history and future of feed processing’ by S. Duitshof MSc (Zetadec, the Netherlands and Wageningen University) and Dr M. Thomas (Zetadec, the Netherlands and Wageningen University) ‘Industry Outlook: Animal feed industry in South Africa’ (2018) ‘History of pellet mills in feed industry’ (Yemtar)


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