Supplements Nimishraj Panse, PhD Phillip M. Gerk, PharmD, PhD
Introduction
Ketone bodies are a vital alternative metabolic fuel source for all kinds of organisms.1 In fasting or uncontrolled diabetes, oxaloacetate is unavailable for condensation with acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA), as it is converted to glucose through the gluconeogenesis pathway. Thus, acetyl-CoA is used to form acetoacetate and D-3-hydroxybutyrate (often referred to as “ketone bodies”). Their structures (along with “ketone ester”) are shown in Figure 1. Ketone bodies are derived from fatty acids, and the majority are produced in the liver. Ketone bodies diffuse from the hepatic mitochondria into the blood, where they can reach other tissues that can oxidize them as an energy source (eg, heart, brain, and kidney). Acetoacetate and 3-hydroxybutyrate are common fuels for cellular respi- ration and are significant energy sources. Cardiac muscle and the renal cortex prefer acetate over glucose to meet their energy demands. Conversely, glucose is the major energy source for the brain and red blood cells in well-nourished people who consume a balanced diet. However, in certain conditions such as starvation and diabetes, the brain adapts to use acetoacetate. In prolonged starvation, 75% of brain energy needs are met by ketone bodies.2
Ketone bodies are involved in a number of major metabolic pathways
like fatty acid oxidation, gluconeogenesis, the Krebs cycle, de novo lipogenesis, and bio- synthesis of sterols.1 Reduction in carbohydrate (glycogen) availability within skeletal muscle causes fatigue and diminished physical performance. As stated earlier, ketone bodies have the potential to serve as an alternate fuel source in the absence of carbohydrates. This has drawn much attention to the development of nutritional strategies for their use as fuels that spare endogenous carbohydrate during endurance exercise.