Table 1 Dietary Reference Intakes for Choline7 Life-stage group
AI, mg/d
Infants, mo 0-6
7-12
Children, y 1-3 4-8
Males, ya 9-13
14-18 ≥19
Females, ya 9-13
14-18 ≥19
Pregnant individuals, y 14-18 19-50
Lactating individuals, y 14-18 19-50
125 150
200 250
375 550 550
375 400 425
450 450
450 550
Specific recommendations for transgender people were not provided.
UL, mg/d
ND ND
1,000 1,000
2,000 3,000 3,500
2,000 3,000 3,500
3,000 3,500
3,000 3,500
Abbreviations: AI, Adequate Intake; ND, not determined; UL, Tolerable Upper Intake Level. a
Deficiency
The lack of dose-response data assessing the relationship between choline intake and organ health outcomes precludes assessment of the risk of deficiency at a given intake. Choline deficiency induced in adults under experimental conditions (<50 mg/d) results in liver and muscle dysfunction, although other indicators of organ health (ie, brain and intestine) have not been investigated thoroughly. In research settings, deficiency is associated with elevated serum markers of liver (alanine aminotransferase, aspar- tate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and γ-glutamyl transferase) and muscle (creatine kinase) dysfunction, increased hepatic steatosis, and decreased plasma free choline. However, these markers are not necessarily sensitive and specific for the diag- nosis of dietary choline deficiency, especially in clinical settings, and must be assessed longitudinally, combined with intake data, and ideally, their responsiveness to choline supplementation determined. Although the term “deficiency” is typically reserved for when serum markers of liver and muscle dysfunction are elevated, certain life stages, such as pregnancy, do not show elevated liver or muscle dysfunction markers or reduced serum choline but are thought to benefit from choline supplementation beyond habitual intakes. In the case of pregnancy, choline intakes around double the AI are associated