CHAPTER 2: CIRCLE OF LIFE Building ocean resilience
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are broadly described as areas set aside to protect and manage the biodiversity within coastal and marine ecosystems effectively and equitably (UNEP 2017; Elliott et al.2011). Simultaneously, MPAs help to achieve the long-term conservation of nature and its associated ecosystem and cultural values (Neumann et al. 2015). The region’s countries are at the forefront of designating MPAs (Box 8). Between 2004 and 2017, the marine area protected in the region increased by 13.8 per cent (IPBES 2018). Many countries in Northeast and Southeast Asia, and Oceania are on track to fulfilling the Convention on Biological Diversity Aichi Target 11 of declaring 10 per cent of oceans as protected areas, which further strengthens the global efforts for marine biodiversity conservation outlined in SDG 14: Life below water (Rees et al. 2018).
The region’s Coral Triangle has numerous MPAs of various sorts, including no-take zones in which no extractive activities are allowed, that are managed by various national agencies. To help guide management of such a large area, Flower et al. (2013) recommended taking an integrated and coordinated ecosystem-based approach to address the multiple impacts to the region’s coastal and marine areas, and ensure their long-term sustainability for local people. When well managed, MPAs can contribute to reducing poverty (SDG 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere), building food security (SDG 2: Zero hunger), and creating employment, as seen at four sites (Figure 11; van Beukering et al. 2013). As well as contributing to the achievement of a number of SDGs (UNEP 2017), MPAs and the ecological benefits they provide also
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contribute to the Convention on Biodiversity Aichi Targets (Rees et al. 2018), which may further support the SDGs by building resilience to climate change (Figure 12; Nippon Foundation-Nereus Program 2017; Neumann et al. 2015).
Effectively well-designed and managed MPAs that conserve critical habitats, species and ecological functions are useful for recovering, protecting and enhancing biodiversity, productivity and resilience (Reuchlin-Hugenholtz and McKenzie 2015). Increasing the coverage of MPAs is thus expected to enhance the provision of benefits from healthy marine ecosystems. In addition, strong governance to influence human behaviour and reduce impacts on the marine environment makes MPAs more effective (UNEP 2017). The region’s main challenge is the effective management of its extensive MPA network. Despite the progress in coverage of MPAs in Asia and the Pacific, the Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (2018) reported that the rate of species loss had not slowed. This underlines the need for great urgency in ensuring the region’s natural resources are appropriately managed by all the relevant stakeholders.
2.5 Urban systems: liveable and sustainable nature
Urban systems contribute to a higher quality of life, providing various health, cultural, recreational, and economic benefits to urban dwellers. An urban system is characterized by the complex, adaptive, and socio-ecological systems that occurs when society and the system are connected on multiple levels (Figure 13) (Nady 2016; Grimm et al. 2008; Bolund
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