54 carbon-capture/


[6] B.V. Mathiesen, H. Lund, D. Connolly, H. Wenzel, P.A. Østergaard, B. Möller, S. Nielsen, I. Ridjan, P. Karnøe, K. Sperling, F.K. Hvelplund, Smart Energy Systems for coherent 100% renewable energy and transport solutions, Applied Energy, Volume 145, 2015, Pages 139-154, ISSN 0306-2619, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.075.


[7] IEA (2021), About CCUS, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/ reports/about-ccus


[8] Direct Air Capture Technology. Carbon Engineering. (2021, December 13). Retrieved March 1, 2022, from https:// carbonengineering.com/our-technology/


[9] Li, Y.-N., Ma, R., He, L.-N., & Diao, Z.-F. (2014). Homogeneous hydrogenation of carbon dioxide to methanol. Catal. Sci. Technol., 4(6), 1498–1512. https://doi.org/10.1039/ c3cy00564j


Figure A2. Environmental assessment showing the impact of substituting DE grid mix by renewable energy within different production processes in the AEL- 2015-DE-Grid-Mix case [14]


[10] Anthony Y.H. Lu, Gerald T. Miwa, Susan B. West, ON THE STIMULATORY ROLE OF PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE IN A CYTOCHROME P-450-CONTAINING RECONSTITUTED HYDROXYLATION SYSTEM, Editor(s): Minor J. Coon, Allan H. Conney, Ronald W. Estabrook, Harry V. Gelboin, James R. Gillette, Peter J. O’Brien, Microsomes, Drug Oxidations and Chemical Carcinogenesis, Academic Press, 1980, Pages 59-66, ISBN 9780121877019, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12- 187701-9.50011-5.


[11] Krol, T., & Lenz, C. (2020). Can e-fuels close the renewables power gap? A review. VGB PowerTech.


[12] Sporrer, A. (2021, October 7). E-methanol: Missing piece to shipping’s decarbonization puzzle? FreightWaves. Retrieved from https://www.freightwaves.com/news/e-methanol- missing-piece-to-shippings-decarbonization-puzzle


[13] Efuels – sustainable in two ways. eFuel Alliance. (n.d.). Retrieved March 1, 2022, from https://www.efuel-alliance.eu/ efuels


[14] Laura E. Hombach, Larissa Doré, Katrin Heidgen, Heiko Maas, Timothy J. Wallington, Grit Walther, Economic and environmental assessment of current (2015) and future (2030) use of E-fuels in light-duty vehicles in Germany, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 207, 2019, Pages 153-162, ISSN 0959-6526, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.261.


Figure A3. Reference scenario (RS) production costs for different types of synthetic fuels in 2015 and 2030 [2].


[15] Bothe, D. (2019, July 10). E-fuels from Renewable Electricity Key for a successful energy turnaround. Frontier Economics. Retrieved from https://www.frontier-economics. com/uk/en/news-and-articles/news/news-article-i6477-e- fuels-from-renewable-electricity-key-for-a-successful-energy- turnaround/#


[16] Shi, Xingyi, et al. “Performance Characteristics of a Liquid e-Fuel Cell.” Applied Energy, vol. 297, Elsevier Ltd, 2021, p. 117145–, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117145.


[17] Wang, Lianqin, et al. “Energy Effi ciency of Alkaline Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells Employing Nanostructured Palladium Electrocatalysts.” ChemCatChem, vol. 7, no. 14, WILEY- VCH Verlag, 2015, pp. 2214–21, https://doi.org/10.1002/ cctc.201500189.


[18] Projects: Emissions-to-liquids technology. CRI - Carbon Recycling International. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www. carbonrecycling.is/projects


Figure A4. (a and b) General performance of the liquid e-fuel cell at 60 C [16].


supply be supplied by renewable energies by 2050 [22]. At the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) it was recognized that member countries must pledge to further cut emissions of carbon dioxide to a rate where there is a maximum of 1.5 increase in global temperatures per year. If countries were to continue with current regulations, global temperatures can increase to a concerning rate of 2.5 per year. However, in 2020, global CO2


emissions from fossil fuels fell 7%, the largest annual


drop ever observed [23]. An e-fuel’s ability to obtain net-zero carbon emissions can contribute to further lowering emissions if usage is increased. With continued research and development of sustainable e-fuel methods, we can continue lowering emissions and all in all, prevent the imminent climate disaster.


References


[1] H. Stanin, H. Mikuli, X. Wang, N. Dui, A review on alternative fuels in future energy system, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 128, 2020, 109927, ISSN 1364-0321, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109927.


[2] Brynolf, Selma, et al. “Electrofuels for the Transport Sector: A Review of Production Costs.” Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 81, no. 2, Elsevier Ltd, 2018, pp. 1887–905, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.288.


[3] Ausfelder, F., & Wagemann, K. (2020). Powertofuels: Efuels as an important option for a climatefriendly mobility of the future. Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 92(1-2), 21–30. https://doi. org/10.1002/cite.201900180


[4] Hydrogen production: Electrolysis. Energy.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved March 1, 2022, from https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/ hydrogen-production-electrolysis


[5] Carbon capture. Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. (2021, May 27). Retrieved from https://www.c2es.org/content/


Author Contact Details


Dr. Raj Shah, Koehler Instrument Company • Holtsvile, NY 11742 USA • Email: rshah@koehlerinstrument.com • Web: www.koehlerinstrument.com Anthony Schevon, SUNY, Stony Brook University • Hugo Ramos, SUNY, Stony Brook University •


IET MARCH / APRIL 2022


[19] Achieved the fl ight using sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) made from woody biomass. Toyo Engineering Corporation. (2021, June 18). Retrieved March 1, 2022, from https://www. toyo-eng.com/jp/en/company/news/?n=584


[20] Xiao Jiang, Xiaowa Nie, Xinwen Guo, Chunshan Song, and Jingguang G. Chen, Recent Advances in Carbon Dioxide Hydrogenation to Methanol via Heterogeneous Catalysis, Chemical Reviews 2020 120 (15), 7984-8034 DOI: 10.1021/ acs.chemrev.9b00723


[21] Lester, Mason Scott, et al. “Analysis on Electrofuels in Future Energy Systems: A 2050 Case Study.” Energy (Oxford), vol. 199, Elsevier Ltd, 2020, p. 117408–, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117408.


[22] Steffen Schemme, Remzi Can Samsun, Ralf Peters, Detlef Stolten, Power-to-fuel as a key to sustainable transport systems – An analysis of diesel fuels produced from CO2 and renewable electricity, Fuel, Volume 205, 2017, Pages 198-221, ISSN 0016-2361, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.05.061.


[23] CB Insights. (2021, April 7). Direct air capture explained: The Buzzy New Carbon Reduction Tech gaining exec attention. CB Insights Research. Retrieved March 1, 2022, from https:// www.cbinsights.com/research/direct-air-capture-corporate- carbon-reduction/


Anthony Schevon


Hugo Ramos


Raj Shah


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