in the 1990s is believed to have negatively affected Russia’s European wolverine population1

.

Management challenges and opportunities Wolverines are subject to different agreements and management regimes in the Arctic countries. In the United States, wolverines can be harvested in Alaska and Montana. On three occasions (1995, 2003, and 2008) the wolverine was petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act, but was unsuccessful due to lack of information on distribution, habitat requirements, and threats13

. In Canada, the wolverine is harvested in all western jurisdictions, but is protected in Newfoundland and Labrador, where it is listed under the provincial Endangered Species Act4

.

Canadian management practices such as trapping closures, limited seasons, quotas, and registered trapping sessions, are considered to reduce the threat to wolverines by discouraging overharvest4

harvesting is permitted year-round1

. In Russia, where the wolverine is harvested for fur, .

Scandinavian countries have had national legislation governing the protection of wolverines since the 1970s. The wolverine is also subject to international agreements in these countries. It is listed in Appendix II (strictly protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention, which has been ratified by Norway, Sweden, and Finland. For Appendix II-listed species, the Convention expressly forbids all forms of deliberate capture, keeping, or killing; deliberate disturbance; and possession and internal trade of this species. However, contracting parties may make exceptions in certain cases, for example, for the prevention of serious damage to livestock, as is the case in Norway, where the government exercises its right to implement measures in order to control the population size1,3

. In Sweden and Finland, the wolverine is

also listed in Appendix II (requires specially protected areas) and IV (strictly protected species) of the European Community’s Habitats Directive. In Sweden, the wolverine is officially listed as Endangered and not usually subject to hunting1 wolverines are fully protected1

; in Finland, .

Successful, on-going conservation of the wolverine across its circumpolar range will require efforts on many fronts.

Governments and researchers require more in-depth knowledge of wolverine ecology, population dynamics, and wolverine-prey relationships in order to ensure “controlled harvesting” quotas are appropriate to maintain viable populations1

. Furthermore,

better enforcement of existing regulations may be required in some areas.

Arguably, minimizing conflicts with livestock husbandry is the most important challenge for the conservation of wolverines. In Fennoscandia, few areas exist within the wolverines’ range where there is no conflict potential with sheep and/ or domestic reindeer2

. The long-term success of wolverine

conservation in Fennoscandia will depend on reducing conflict in multiple-use landscapes and gaining the support of local communities2

increasing local involvement in decision-making processes3

. Any future strategies should focus on .

Farmers and local communities should be educated and encouraged to adopt husbandry practices, which minimize depredation (e.g., reviving traditional herding methods2

).

Economic incentives should be applied to encourage farmers to conserve wolverines on their lands, rather than hunting them. In Sweden reindeer herders are financially rewarded for identifying and protecting dens on their land1

. RELEVANCE OF MULTI-LATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS 49

I

II