markets and hence, they will be affected not only by changes in the Arctic but also by changes elsewhere19

.

The economic and cultural importance of Arctic biodiversity to Indigenous Peoples has often been in conflict with the conservation values derived and promoted from more southerly regions. Indeed, many Arctic residents have questioned conventional biodiversity (wildlife) management as practised in the past across the Arctic and have resisted systems for conservation and management of biodiversity imposed from outside the Arctic20

. It is now acknowledged

that collective action, and engagement amongst a diversity of stakeholders, is required to meet these unexpected challenges. Empowering northern residents, particularly Indigenous Peoples, through self-government and self- determination arrangements, including ownership and management of land and natural resources, is a key ingredient that can enable them to adapt to climate change and other challenges21

. The ecosystem approach

The ecosystem approach as defined by CBD is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water, and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way, which recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems26,27

. It is the

primary framework for action for achieving the Convention’s main objectives: 1. the conservation of biological diversity; 2. the sustainable use of components of biological diversity; and, 3. the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources18

.

The complexity and interconnectedness of humanity and the rest of nature require knowledge produced through interdisciplinary collaboration and in close connection with other stakeholders and resource users28

. Participatory

approaches help ensure that ecosystem services and biodiversity benefit both local and Indigenous communities, as well as enabling communities to be more responsible for the sustainable management of their natural resources.

With the overall goal of conservation and sustainable use of globally-significant biodiversity, the project’s immediate priority was the adoption and implementation of IEM strategies and action plans in the three model areas – Kolguev Island, Kolyma River Basin, and Beringovsky district. In support of the IEM strategies and action plans, the project carried out a number of activities including biodiversity and socio-economic inventories and assessments; targeted training programs; legislative, administrative and institutional capacity building; specific conservation measures; and pilot activities to test integrated ecosystem management approaches for conserving and sustainably using natural resources. The project outcomes will help to secure the integrity of some of the world’s last remaining pristine areas and support livelihoods of Indigenous and local peoples.

LIMITATIONS AND STRENGTHS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS 31

Russian experiences with Integrated Ecosystem Management

One way of implementing the ecosystem approach is through Integrated Ecosystem Management (IEM). Broadly speaking, IEM can be defined as the management of human environmental, social, and economic activities and relationships for the purpose of achieving specific conservation and development goals. IEM, therefore, represents a viable alternative for conservation compared with other disciplinary approaches.

While the number of IEM-related initiatives in Russia is limited, interest in its use is growing. Indigenous groups, in particular, have a keen interest in taking part in co- management regimes as applied in many parts of the world over recent decades. Experience with IEM is being gained through initiatives such as the ECORA – a Global Environment Facility (GEF) sponsored project between the Arctic Council working group on the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), the Russian Federation, and UNEP/GRID-Arendal. ECORA, which ran from 2004 to 2009, took an integrated ecosystem approach to conserve biodiversity and minimize habitat fragmentation in three selected model areas of the Russian Arctic, and was one of the first and largest IEM initiatives in Russia.

I

II