Table 6C.1: The main natural system effects of relative sea-level rise, interacting factors and examples of socio-economic system
adaptations. Some interacting factors (for example, sediment supply) appear twice as they can be influenced both by climate and
non-climate factors. Adaptation strategies: P = Protection; A = Accommodation; R = Retreat.
Source: Based on Nicholls and Tol 2006
47
Natural System Effects Interacting Factors Socio-economic System Adaptations
Climate Non-climate
1. Inundation, a. Surge (sea) – wave/storm climate – sediment supply – dykes/surge barriers [P]
flood and storm – erosion – flood management – building codes/floodwise buildings [A]
damage – sediment supply – erosion – land use planning/hazard delineation [A/R]
– land use
b. Backwater effect – run-off – catchment
(river) management
– land use
2. Wetland loss (and change) – CO
2
fertilization – sediment supply – land-use planning [A/R]
– sediment supply – migration space – managed realignment/forbid hard defences [R]
– direct destruction – nourishment/sediment management [P]
3. Erosion (direct and indirect – sediment supply – sediment supply – coast defences [P]
morphological change) – wave/storm climate – nourishment [P]
– building setbacks [R]
4. Saltwater a. Surface Waters – run-off – catchment – saltwater intrusion barriers [P]
Intrusion management – change water abstraction [A/R]
– land use
b. Ground-water – rainfall – land use – freshwater injection [P]
– aquifer use – change water abstraction [A/R]
5. Rising water tables/impeded drainage – rainfall – land use – upgrade drainage systems [P]
– run-off – aquifer use – polders [P]
– catchment – change land use [A]
management – land use planning/hazard delineation [A/R]
Overview of sea-level rise impacts and significant impacts may be associated with changes in
adaptation interannual variability and changes in extreme sea levels
resulting from storms. Given that more intense storms
Impacts of sea-level rise are determined by the relative are expected both in the tropics and outside of the trop-
sea-level change, reflecting not only the global-mean ics
45
, extreme sea level scenarios due to changing storm
trend in sea level, but also regional and local variations in characteristics need to be considered along with mean
sea-level change and in geological uplift and subsidence
44
. sea-level rise scenarios, although this information is
Areas that are subsiding are more threatened. The most presently much less developed for most coastal areas
46
.
164 GLOBAL OUTLOOK FOR ICE AND SNOW